Motion Artifacts – a) Picture defects that appear only when there is motion in the scene. Interlaced scanning has motion artifacts in both the vertical and horizontal directions. There is a halving of vertical resolution at certain rates of vertical motion (when the detail in one field appears in the position of the next field one sixtieth of a second later), and horizontally moving vertical edges become segmented (reduced in resolution) by the sequential fields. This is most apparent when a frame of a motion sequence is frozen and the two fields flash different information. All subsampling ATV schemes have some form of motion artifact, from twinkling detail to dramatic differences between static and dynamic resolutions. Line doubling schemes and advanced encoders and decoders can have motion artifacts, depending on how they are implemented. Techniques for avoiding motion artifacts include median filtering and motion adaptation or compensation. b) In all temporally-sampled systems (i.e., both photographic and electronic), realistic motion reproduction is achieved only with sampling above the Nyquist limit. The subjective response to motion artifacts is complex, influences by the various degrees of smoothing and strobing affecting temporal and spatial resolution, integration and tag in the sensing, recording, and display elements, sampling geometry and scanning patterns, shutter transmission ratio, perceptual tolerances, etc. (Motion appears “normal” only when significant frame-to-frame displacement occurs at less than half the frame rate, i.e., “significant motion” distributed over at least two frames.) Motion artifacts most frequently observed have their origins in the following: image components with velocity functions extending beyond the Nyquist limit (such as rotating, spoked wheels), motion samples with such short exposures there is noticeable frame-to-frame separation of sharply defined images (such as synchronized flash illumination), asynchronous sampling of intermittent motion (such as frame-rate conversions). A considerable number of motion artifacts appear so frequently as to be accepted by most viewers.