PART III
CHAPTER MATERIALS

CHAPTER 4

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying the material in this chapter, students should be able to:

• Understand the role of history in intercultural communication interactions. Describe some of the histories that influence our communication.

• Describe how power has influenced the recording and acknowledgment of history. Explain why it is necessary to recover "hidden" histories.
• Discuss how the resulting power from our histories influences intercultural communication.
• Understand the importance of narratives in developing our identities.
• Explain how diasporic histories influence intercultural interactions.
• Identify the antecedents of our intercultural contacts.
• Describe the contact hypothesis.
• List the conditions under which contact may facilitate positive attitude change toward another culture.
• Explain how we can negotiate histories in interactions.

KEY WORDS

EXTENDED CHAPTER OUTLINE

I.          Introduction: Our knowledge of history and how we feel about it are influenced by our cultural backgrounds.  As a result of the U.S. cultural orientation to the future, Americans often ignore history.
A. In intercultural encounters, differences may become hidden barriers to communication.
B. The influence of history on our interactions is frequently overlooked, but many intercultural interactions involve a dialectical interplay between past and present.
C. Although European American students often want to de-emphasize history, many current situations cannot be understood without knowing their historical background.
D. Further, how we think about the past influences how we think about ourselves and others.
E. A dialectical perspective enables us to understand how history positions people in the different cultural places from which they communicate with and interpret others' messages.
F. This chapter will focus on the history/past-present/future dialectic.

II.        From History to Histories: To understand the dialectics in everyday interaction, we need to think about the histories that are part of our various identities.
A. Political, Intellectual, and Social Histories
1. Some people restrict their notion of history to documented events.
2. Political histories are written histories that focus on political events.
3. Intellectual histories are written histories that focus on the development of ideas.
4. Social histories are accounts of the everyday life experiences of various groups in the past.
5. Absent history is a historical event that was never recorded.
6. An absent history is not an insignificant history, but acknowledging absent histories requires more complex thinking about the past and the ways it influences the future.
B. Family Histories
1. These occur at the same time as other histories, but on a more personal level.
2. Often they are not written down, but passed along orally from one generation to the next.
3. Families vary in their knowledge of and feelings of importance for their family histories.
4. Many family histories are deeply intertwined with ethnic-group histories.
C. National History
1. The history of any nation is important to its people.
2. This history is taught formally in school, and we are expected to recognize certain historical events and people.
3. National histories give people a sense of who they are and solidifies their sense of nationhood.
4. Even if people do not fit into their national narratives, they are expected to know them in order to understand references used in communication.
5. We rarely receive much information about the histories of other nations unless we study other languages.
6. Historical contexts shape language.
D. Cultural-Group Histories
1. Cultural groups in each nation have their own histories.
2. These may be hidden, but they are related to the national history.
3. They are not always part of the national history, but they are important in the development of group identity, family histories, and the contemporary lives of these co-cultures.
4. The authors feel that history should be viewed as many stories about the past rather than as one story on a singular time continuum.
5. Ignorance of others' histories may lead to potential misunderstandings.

III.      History, Power, and Intercultural Communication
Power is a central dynamic in the writing of history. A culture's power structure influences what information is transmitted as history and how it is transmitted.
A. The Power of Texts
1. History is vital for understanding identity, but it is only accessible to us in a textual, narrative form.
2. Not everyone has an equal chance to write and produce historical texts.
3. Sometimes lack of access to political participation and forbidden languages have made it impossible to write histories.
4. The language we use influences our understanding of history, as evidenced by the connotative differences between “internment camp” and “concentration camp.”
5. When we are taught history, we are also taught a particular way of viewing the world.
6. The availability of political documents and how they reflect powerful inequities influences what is written as history.
7. The seeming unity of the past, the linear nature of history, is merely a reflection of  a modernist identity, grounded in Western tradition.
B. The Power of Other Histories

• Melissa Steyn (2001) notes how the  "grand narrative" in South Africa led to the establishment of Apartheid.
• In this period of rapid change, the grand narrative of the past has lost credibility, and we are rethinking cultural struggles and cultural identities.

3. Histories that have been suppressed, hidden, or erased are being rewritten as cultures that were dominated in the past are being empowered.
4. This restoration of history enables us to examine what cultural identities mean and to rethink the dominant cultural identity.
C. Power in Intercultural Interactions
1. Power is the legacy of past history and leaves cultural groups in particular positions.
2. We are never "equal" in intercultural encounters because history has left us in unbalanced positions, and though we may chose to ignore it, this imbalance will still influence our interactions and identities.

IV.      History and Identity
A. Histories as Stories
1. Although people are tempted to ignore all the levels of history that affect them, this only masks their influence.
2. Telling stories is a fundamental part of the human experience.
3. Histories are stories we use to help us make sense of ourselves and others.
4. A strong element in our U.S. cultural attitudes encourages us to forget history.
5. The desire to forget history tells us significant information about how our culture negotiates its relationship to the past and about how we view the relationships of other cultures with their pasts.
6. Ignoring history can sometimes lead to wrong conclusions about others that reinforce stereotypes.
7. It is a paradox that even if we ignore history we cannot escape it.
B. Nonmainstream Histories
1. People from nonmainstream cultural groups have had to struggle to retain their histories.
a. They have not learned them in school, but the histories are vital to their understanding of who they are.
b. Mainstream U.S. history has neither the time nor space to include all ethnic histories and racial histories.
c. Some people feel these histories question or undermine the celebratory nature of a national history.
d. However, these histories act as markers in the maintenance of cultural identity for many groups of people (for example, Japanese, Jewish).
e. Histories are never isolated but are interwoven and place cultural groups in differential power positions are: sometimes the victim, sometimes the victimizer, and sometimes both.
f. Blanchot (1986) suggests that we have responsibilities for histories that happened even before we were born.
g. Displacement of populations is part of the history of every migrating or colonizing people.
h. All our lives are entangled in the web of history from which there is no escape, only denial and silence.
C. Hidden Histories: Revealing histories hidden from the mainstream can help those cultural members with the construction of their personal and cultural identities and offer them an opportunity to reconcile the events of history. Awareness of hidden histories helps others understand how groups have negotiated cultural attitudes in the past that are relevant today.
1. Gender Histories
a. Feminist scholars have insisted that much of the history of women has been lost.
b. Although there is interest in women's history today, gender histories are difficult to document because of restrictions against women's access to public records.
2. Sexual Orientation Histories
a. Much of the sexual orientation history of homosexuals has been suppressed.
b. This happens when people try to construct a specific understanding of the past and may prevent us from acknowledging significant historical lessons.
c. Relationships with the past are tied to issues of power.
d. People have even tried to reconfigure Nazi history, with homosexuals as the perpetrators rather than the victims, to motivate negative attitudes toward gay identity.
3. Racial and Ethnic Histories
a. Injustices by one culture to another are also frequently suppressed (for example, Japanese internment).
b. Simply acknowledging lost history does not remove the effects of that history .
c. Some histories cannot be suppressed because of their marks on our identity (for example, being French but looking Chinese).
d. One intercultural communication problem is that our desire to view the world in discrete units motivates us to overlook the displacement and migration of other people.
4. Diasporic Histories
a. Also overlooked in intercultural communication are the international relationships many racial and ethnic groups have with people who share their racial and ethnic heritage and history.
b. These relationships resulted from migrations, slavery, transnational capitalism, religious crusades, and so forth.
c. It is important to recognize transnational cultural groups-diaspora.
d. A diaspora is a massive migration caused by war, famine, or persecution that disperses a unified group.
e. Diasporic histories chronicle these migrations.
f. Sometimes these migrations cause people to cling more tightly to their group's identity, though with time people tend to acculturate to their new home countries.
g. History helps identify the connections among people who have been affected by diasporas and other transnational migrations.
5. Colonial Histories
a. A better understanding of the dynamics of intercultural communication today comes from understanding colonial histories.
b. Colonialism has been significant in determining what languages are spoken in various countries today.
c. Many nations have attempted to resist the influences of colonialism by reclaiming their native languages.
d. The languages we speak are determined by the histories of the societies we are born into.
e. Colonial history is filled with incidents of oppression and brutality.
f. As a result, many advocate a position of postcolonialism, which is an intellectual, political, and cultural movement beyond colonialism that calls for independence not only of colonized states but of colonialist ways of thinking.
6. Socioeconomic Class Histories
a. Though frequently forgotten, class issues and economics motivated many people to emigrate to the United States.
b. People who are socioeconomically privileged also emigrate.
c. These histories are helpful in understanding interactions and politics between different groups.

V.        Intercultural Communication and History: A number of perspectives are important for understanding relationships between communication and history.
A. Antecedents of Contact: It is important to recognize that we bring elements of our personal histories into each intercultural interaction including:

• Childhood experiences concerning other cultures.
• Historical myths about other cultures.
• The language we speak.
• The tendency to be affected by recent, vivid events.

B. Contact Hypothesis
1. The contact hypothesis is the notion that better communication between groups of people will occur if they are simply put together in the same place and allowed to interact.
2. Though this notion has no historical support, many public policies and programs in the United States and abroad are based on this hypothesis.
3. Allport (1979) and Amir (1969) have tried to identify conditions under which the contact hypothesis holds true. Their studies and subsequent ones show that the histories of the groups heavily influence the outcomes of contact and that eight conditions must be more or less met for contact to facilitate positive attitude change and intergroup communication.
a. Members of both groups should be of equal status both within and outside of the contact situation.
b. Strong normative and institutional support for contact should be provided.
c. Contact should be voluntary.
d. Contact should not be superficial but have the potential to extend beyond the immediate situation and to occur in a variety of contexts with a variety of individuals from both groups.
e. Cooperation within groups should be maximized, and competition between groups should be minimized.
f. An equal number of members from each group should meet.
g. Group members should have similar beliefs and values.
h. Individuation of group members should be promoted.
4. This list helps us understand how domestic and international contexts vary, and it is easy to see how the history within a nation-state may lead to conditions and attitudes that are more difficult to facilitate.
5. This list is incomplete, and meeting each condition does not always guarantee positive outcomes when diverse groups of people interact.
6. It simply represents a starting place.
C. Negotiating Histories Dialectically in Interaction
1. To negotiate histories in our interactions, we need first to recognize that we have them (both known and hidden) and to understand the role they play for those with whom we interact.
2. We need to understand the role histories play in the identities we bring into the interaction.
3. Sometimes the past-present dialectic operates along with the disadvantage-privilege dialectic, and we need to think dialectically about history and class.
4. Both dialectics affect our view of the past, present, and future.
5. Who we are today is greatly influenced by how we understand the past, as well as by the ways we live and the culture we believe to be our own.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

Questions from the Text

1. What are some examples of "hidden" histories, and why are they hidden?
2. How do the various histories of the United States influence our communication with people from
other countries?
3. What kinds of histories are likely to influence your interactions with an international student of the same gender and age?
4. What factors in your experience have led to the development of positive feelings about your own cultural heritage and background? What factors have led to negative feelings, if any?
5. When can contact between members of two cultures improve their attitudes toward each other and facilitate communication between them?
6. How do histories influence the process of identity formation?
7. What is the significance of the shift from history to histories? How does this shift help us understand intercultural communication?
8. Why do some people in the United States prefer not to talk about history? What views of social reality and intercultural communication does this attitude encourage?

Additional Questions

1. How does a dialectical perspective help us to understand the role of history in communication interactions between people of different cultures?
2. How do national histories influence citizens' identities?
3. How does power influence the writing of history?
4. Why do the authors argue that we are never "equal" in intercultural encounters?

• What dangers are there in ignoring history?

6. Why does Blanchot (1986) suggest that we have responsibilities for histories that
happened even before we were born.
7. What makes diasporic histories unique from other types of histories?
8. What does the contact hypothesis tell us?

CLASSROOM EXERCISES AND CHAPTER ASSIGNMENTS

1. Defining History Exercise: Ask students what the term history means to them. Ask them to explain their answers (in a heterogeneous class, students will probably give a variety of different answers, in a monocultural class, answers might be more unified, suggesting that history is not very important). This exercise should be conducted before most students have a chance to read the chapter as an introduction. The instructor should list all the types of responses on the board and ask the students to think about them as they read the chapter, respond in a journal entry, or use them to start a lecture and a discussion about the relationship between different histories and social positions.

2. Interview Assignment: Assign students to work with four to six other students to interview two individuals who vary in gender, age, ethnicity, and race about their attitudes toward history. Interviews should be completed for an assigned class period. On that day, an hour of class time is given to the groups to meet and compile the information. Have them attempt to specify how social positions influence individuals' attitudes toward history and what factors influence whether an individual sees history as an important element of his or her identity. Their conclusions could be shared in class, or they could each write a brief report and turn it in with summaries of their interviews.

3. Family/Local History Assignment: The focus of this assignment is to help students become more familiar with their own personal family history or the history of their community. Students are assigned to interview an elderly (at least 70 years old) family member or member of their community (preferably someone who has spent the majority of his or her life in the community). Students should prepare questions for the interview that invite the interviewees to talk about what they remember about growing up; changes that they have seen occur (social, technological, economical, and so on) and how they feel these have affected the family/community; information about the origin of the family/community in the United States; how they think growing up today is different from when they grew up; whether they feel that values in society have changed and what effect this change has had on life today. Students should take notes or ask permission to record the interview. After completing the interview, students should write a paper that addresses questions such as:
a. How do you think growing up in your family/community is different today than it was for your interviewee?
b. What are some of the changes that have occurred in the United States during the lifetime of your interviewee, and how do you think those changes have affected your family/community?
c. Have there been any shifts in values that have affected your family/community? d. What new information did you learn about your family/community?
e. What did you learn about the origins of your family/community in the United
States?
f. Of the information you gained, what information was the most interesting/ meaningful to you?
g. How do you think the history of your family/community has influenced your life experience and how you think about yourself?

4. History of Groups in Conflict Assignment: Students are to select two cultural, national, or religious groups presently involved in conflicts (for example, Serbs and Albanians, Palestinians and Israelis, and so forth). Assign them to work in teams with one partner researching the history of each group. Their goal is to determine what events, people, and/or beliefs in the histories of these two groups have perpetuated the present conflict and how these have been interpreted by the members of each group. Students should try to identify what the conflict is about and how the groups' perceptions of their experiences and positions differ. After gathering this information, students could be assigned to present it in oral or written form as either a dialogue between members of the cultural groups they researched or from the perspective of peacekeepers assigned to help negotiate the resolution of the conflict.
Note: With minor expansions to the requirements, this assignment could easily be made into a term project.

5. Negotiating History Exercise: This exercise is designed to encourage students to
investigate an event in United States history from different cultural perspectives. Have students research videos, magazine articles, and so on that reported events surrounding the 500th  Anniversary of Christopher Columbus "discovering" America from a pre-assigned cultural viewpoint such as Native American, European American, African American, Asian, Latino, European, or Spanish. It is likely that students will need to dig deeply and look in a variety of nonacademic resources for this assignment. In addition, students may want to interview cultural informants, asking for their opinions of this event. During class, students will present this event
from their assigned perspective. Encourage students to defend/support (using their research findings) why the group they represent perceived the situation from their particular view. This assignment could also be researched and presented in teams of three or four students.

6. History Assignment: This assignment is designed to encourage students to learn about someone whose culture is different from theirs by reading about a particular person's life. Students read an autobiography or essay of a person whose culture, religion, sexual orientation, or social class status is different from their own. The person may be famous, but this is not necessary for meeting the goals of this assignment. The students can either make a verbal presentation to the class or be asked to write a two- to four- page report about the person's life. Ask students to point out how events in the person's cultural, gender, socioeconomic, or other histories influenced that person's
life.

7. Dialectic Approach to Current Issues: Select a current issue in the United States about which there is conflict between two groups (for example, women in the military, teaching Ebonics, or bilingual education). Randomly divide the students in the class into two groups and assign each group to represent one side in this conflict. Random assignment will prevent people who might be members of the groups in the conflict from choosing the side they favor or forcing members of groups associated with the conflict to defend their positions against members on the other side of the conflict. Then split each student group into two subgroups. Assign the members of one subgroup to research issues in the history of the group they represent that provide a context for the position of their assigned group. Instruct members of the second subgroup to research the present conflict from the position of their assigned group to gather details about how the conflict is being negotiated. Have them work together to prepare an oral report that will explain the current position and conflict from the position of each group and that explains events in the past that helped inform and motivate their group's position. After each group has presented its report, debrief the activity by asking students:
a. Were there any historical events shared by the two groups? How did the outcomes of these events affect the current issue?
b. How does the history of each group affect their current position?
c. How does understanding the history of each group aid us in understanding the current issue?
d. What might people miss toward understanding this issue if they are ignorant of the history of one group? Both groups?

SUGGESTED VIDEOS

1. Video: Black Athena. Distributed by San Francisco, CA: California Newsreel, 1991. This video depicts the debate based on Martin Bernal's book about the African origins of Greek culture. In his book, Bernal argues that 19th-century scholars intentionally covered up the relationships between the Greek culture and non-European cultures. (52 minutes)

2. Video: Awakenings. Distributed by Alexandria, V A: PBS Video, 1986. This video is the first episode of the Eye on the Prize series. It reviews the history of the segregation of Blacks in the south. (60 minutes)

3. Video: Black History: Lost, Stolen, or Strayed. CBS News production released by West Glen Films, 1968. In this video Bill Cosby describes how the history of White and Black relations have affected African Americans. He gives examples of achievements made by African Americans that have been omitted from history texts and shows the changing of the Hollywood stereotype for African Americans.

4. Video Series: Eyes on the Prize II. Distributed by Alexandria, V A: PBS Video, 1986. This is a series of videos on the history of American civil rights from 1965 to 1985. There are eight episodes in this series beginning with Ain't Gonna Shuffle No More.

5. Video: Minorities: From Africa, Asia and the Americas. Distributed by Phoenix/Coronet, 1972. This video reviews the history of America's non-White minorities and how they have all contributed to U.S. society. (16 minutes)

6. Video: Before Stonewall: The Making of Gay and Lesbian Community. Distributed by MPI Home Video. This video relives the emotionally charged start of today's gay rights movement, focusing on events that led to the 1969 riots at a New York City gay bar (Stonewall Inn) and many other milestones in the gay movement for acceptance.

7. Video:  Race:  The Power of an Illusion.  Distributed by San Francisco, CA: California Newsreel, 2003.  This 50-minute PBS video is the third in a three-part series examining the socially constructed nature of race.  It traces current gaps in wealth between European Americans and African Americans back to the nativist movement of the late 1800s and officially sanctioned “redlining” policies of the 1960s. 

8. Video:  A Time Remembered: The Terminal Island Story.  Los Angeles, CA:  Churchill Media, 1995.  Documents the removal of Japanese-Americans from the west coast to relocation centers during World War II, and describes the effects on the individuals and on the
community.  (42 minutes)