CHAPTER 8 Standard Cost Accounting

Materials, labor, and factory overhead

Review Summary
  1.   The purpose of standard cost accounting is to control costs and promote efficiency. It is used in conjunction with methods such as job order or process costing.  It is based on a predetermination of what it should cost to manufacture a product, which is compared to the actual costs incurred.  Standard costing allows for management by exception because deviations from standard can be quickly detected and responsibility pinpointed so the company may take appropriate action. 
  2.    Standard costs usually are determined for a period of one year and revised annually. A standard is a norm against which performance can be measured. Some companies use ideal standards that make no allowance for inefficient conditions such as lost time, waste, or spoilage. Most companies realize that some inefficiencies cannot be completely eliminated, so they use attainable standards that include allowances for lost time, spoilage, and waste. The standard should be high enough to provide motivation and promote efficiency, but not so high that it is unattainable and, thus, discourages workers.
  3.   A materials cost standard represents the quantity of material required for a unit of product times the unit cost that should be paid. A labor cost standard is based on estimates of the labor hours required to produce a unit of product times the hourly rate that should be paid. Factors to be considered in setting standards for materials and labor might include raw materials price trends, the use of substitute materials, labor negotiations with unions, the types of labor needed and the use of labor-saving devices. Once the standard cost of manufacturing a product has been determined, the standard costs, the actual costs, and the variances are recorded in the various journals and in the general ledger.
  4.   A variance represents the difference between the actual and the standard costs of materials, labor, and overhead. The materials price variance is computed by comparing the actual unit cost of materials to the standard unit cost and multiplying the difference by the actual quantity of materials used or purchased if variances are recognized when they are first known. The materials quantity variance is computed by comparing the actual quantity of materials used to the standard quantity that should have been used and multiplying the difference by the standard unit price. The labor rate variance is computed by comparing the actual hourly rate paid to the standard hourly rate that should have been paid and multiplying the difference by the actual number of hours worked. The labor efficiency variance is computed by comparing the actual number of direct labor hours worked to the standard hours that should have been worked and multiplying the difference by the standard labor rate. A debit balance (unfavorable) in a variance account indicates that actual costs exceed standard costs, and a credit balance (favorable) means that standard costs exceed actual costs.
  5.   Sample entries for a standard cost system follow:
        a.  To record the entry for direct materials cost, assuming a favorable quantity variance and an unfavorable price variance:
Work in Process (at standard cost)..............................        XX
Materials Price Variance............................................        XX
Materials Quantity Variance.................................                            XX
Materials (at actual cost)......................................                            XX
        b.  To record the entry for direct labor cost, assuming a favorable rate variance and an unfavorable efficiency variance:
Work in Process (at standard cost)..............................        XX
Labor Efficiency Variance.........................................        XX
Labor Rate Variance............................................                            XX
Payroll (at actual cost).........................................                            XX
        c.  To record the entry applying factory overhead to work in process, assuming no variances:
Work in Process........................................................        XX
Applied Factory Overhead...................................                            XX
        d.  To record the transfer, at standard cost, of work in process to finished goods:
Finished Goods........................................................        XX
Work in Process..................................................                            XX
        At the end of the accounting period, the difference between actual costs and standard costs must be reflected in the financial statements. Some companies prorate the variances to cost of goods sold, work in process, and finished goods. A more common approach is to show the unfavorable or favorable variances as an addition to or reduction from the cost of goods sold for the period, respectively.
  6.   In analyzing materials and labor variances, both price and usage have to be considered. In analyzing materials price variances, inefficient purchasing methods, the substitution of different materials, and increases in market price are all possible explanations. In analyzing materials quantity variances, possible explanations include spoiled or wasted materials and the decision to use higher quality materials subsequent to the budget preparation. In analyzing labor rate variances, changes in labor wage rates subsequent to standard-setting and the use of employees with wage rates different from those called for in the standards are possible reasons. In analyzing labor efficiency variances, the skill level of workers, the frequency of machine breakdowns, and improper scheduling should all be considered.
  7.   Things to remember about standard cost systems are that:
        a.  the actual unit cost of manufacturing a product is not determined—only the total actual and total standard costs.
        b.  the fact that standards are based on estimates does not make them unreliable.
        c.  standards will change as conditions change.
        d.  a standard cost system provides continual incentive to keep costs and performance in line with predetermined objectives.
        e.  a standard cost system helps focus management’s attention on prices paid for materials and labor and on materials and labor quantity usage.
        f.   to allow for more timely action in correcting inefficiencies, most manufacturers calculate variances on a weekly or even daily basis
  8.   The two-variance method, three-variance method, and four-variance method commonly are used for analyzing overhead variances. The two variances in the two-variance method are the controllable or budget variance and the volume variance. The controllable variance is the difference between the actual overhead for a given period and the standard amount of overhead allowed by the budget for that level of production. If the actual overhead exceeds the standard overhead allowed, the difference is an unfavorable variance, and if the actual overhead is less than the standard allowed, the difference is a favorable variance. The volume variance is a result of operating at a level of production different from the standard, or

        normal, level. It is computed as follows:  (production for period × standard factory overhead unit cost) – standard factory overhead budgeted for period’s production.  Because fixed costs will remain the same in total, whether production is above or below standard, the volume variance will be favorable if actual production exceeds standard and unfavorable if actual production is less than standard. If the factory is producing below its normal capacity, it has idle capacity that nevertheless requires expenditures for depreciation, insurance, property taxes, etc.
  9.   The net variance is the difference between the actual factory overhead for the period and the standard overhead costs applied to work in process. Under the two-variance method, its components are the controllable variance and the volume variance.
        The reasons for the individual variances should be investigated. For example, an unfavorable volume variance may be the result of either production inefficiencies, such as machine breakdowns and unskilled laborers, or it may be due to a lack of product demand, which would be the responsibility of marketing and sales. An unfavorable controllable variance may be the result of unanticipated price increases, inefficient supervision, weak control of expenditures, or increased maintenance and repair costs caused by utilization of production facilities beyond normal capacity.
10.    The four-variance method recognizes two variable cost variances and two fixed cost variances. The variable cost variances are identified as a spending variance, which measures the differences in the actual variable overhead rate and the standard variable overhead rate, and an efficiency variance, which measures the change in the variable overhead consumption that occurs due to efficient or inefficient use of the cost allocation base. For fixed cost, a budget variance, which is the difference between actual fixed overhead and budgeted fixed overhead,  and a volume variance, which results from operating at a level of production different than the standard, are determined. The controllable variance under the two-variance method encompasses the spending, efficiency, and budget variance of the four-variance method. The volume variance is a separate item under both methods.
11.   The three-variance method of factory overhead cost analysis breaks down the difference between actual and applied overhead into the following variances: the efficiency variance measures the difference between the overhead applied (standard hours × standard rate) and the actual hours worked multiplied by the standard rate; the capacity variance reflects the under or over-absorption of fixed costs and is measured by the difference between the actual hours worked multiplied by the standard overhead rate and the budget allowance based on actual hours worked; and the budget (spending) variance, which reflects the difference between the amount allowed by the budget for the actual hours worked and the actual costs incurred. Whether the two, three, or four-variance method of overhead analysis is used, the overhead applied to production, the actual overhead, and the net variance would be the same.

 

Part I

Instructions: Indicate your answer in the Answers column by writing a “T” for True or an “F” for False.

Answers

  1.   Standard costs are usually determined for a period of one year..................        _________
  2.   “Ideal standards” include allowances for lost time, spoilage, and waste......        _________
  3.   In establishing standard costs, the standard should be high enough to provide motivation and promote efficiency, but not so high that it is unattainable.......................................        _________
  4.   If variances are to be recognized at the time when they are first known, the materials price variance is computed by comparing the actual unit cost of materials to the standard unit cost and multiplying the difference by the standard quantity of materials used................................        _________
  5.   A variance is favorable if the actual cost incurred is less than the standard cost allowed.       _________
  6.   A debit balance in a variance account indicates that standard costs exceed actual costs.        _________
  7.   A method of disposing of the difference between actual costs and standard costs prior to financial statement preparation is to close the variance accounts to Cost of Goods Sold.                    _________
  8.   Inefficient purchasing methods, the substitution of different materials, and increases in market price are all possible explanations for materials price variances.........................        _________
  9.   It is not necessary to investigate the reasons behind favorable variances.       _________
10.   The volume variance in a two-variance analysis of factory overhead is equal to the volume variance in a four-variance analysis of factory overhead........................................        _________
11.   The standards used in a standard cost system will change as conditions change.  _________
12.   The fact that standards are based on estimates tends to make a standard cost system unreliable.         .......................................................................................... _________
13.   A standard cost system can be used in conjunction with process costing or job order costing. .......................................................................................... _________
14.   In a standard cost system, the entry to record the issuance of materials into production would include a debit to Work in Process for the actual cost of the materials....................        _________
15.   Some companies reflect the difference between actual and standard costs in the financial statements by prorating the variances to Cost of Goods Sold, Work in Process, and Finished Goods.          _________
16.   The two-variance method of analyzing overhead variances is the most commonly used approach.     _________

 

17.   A credit balance in the factory overhead account indicates that the factory did not incur as much overhead as was allowed by the standard at that level of production...........        _________
18.   An unfavorable volume variance may be the result of inefficiencies in labor and supervision, machine breakdowns due to faulty maintenance, and even lack of sales demand.......        _________
19.   When factory overhead is applied to production, Factory Overhead is debited and Work in Process is credited................................................................................................        _________
20.   On the financial statements, overhead variances usually are treated as additions to or subtractions from cost of goods sold.................................................................................        _________

Part II

Instructions: In the Answers column, place the letter from the list below that identifies the term that best matches the statement. No letter should be used more than once.
a.  Attainable standard                            j.  Unfavorable variance
b.  Favorable variance                            k.  Labor efficiency variance
c.  Materials price variance                     l.  Learning effect
d.  Materials usage variance                  m.  Management by exception
e.  Ideal standard                                   n.  Controllable variance
f.  Standard                                          o.  Capacity variance
g.  Labor rate variance                           p.  Four-variance method
h.  Labor cost standard                           q.  Volume variance
i.  Materials cost standard                       r.  Budget variance

Answers

_____    1.   This is the explanation as to why employees become more proficient at a task the more often that they perform it.
_____    2.   This is represented by a debit balance in a variance account.
_____    3.   A norm against which performance can be measured.
_____    4.   It can be achieved only under the most efficient operating conditions, and for all practical purposes it is unattainable.
_____    5.   Some inefficiencies were built into this so that it can be met or bettered in efficient production situations.
_____    6.   This represents the quantity of material required for a unit of product times the cost per unit of material.
_____    7.   In determining this, the services of work-study engineers may be used to establish the time necessary to perform each operation.

_____    8.   This is represented by a credit balance in a variance account.
_____    9.   This indicates the number of actual direct labor hours worked above or below the standard hours times the standard labor rate.
_____  10.   This indicates the actual unit cost of materials above or below the standard unit cost multiplied by the actual quantity of materials used or purchased.
_____  11.   This represents the average of the actual hourly direct labor rates paid above or below the standard hourly rate multiplied by the actual number of hours worked.
_____  12.   This represents the actual quantity of direct materials used above or below the standard quantity allowed for the actual level of production times the standard price.
_____  13.   This is the practice of examining those occurrences that vary greatly from the norm.
_____  14.   To compute this, a comparison must be made between the actual factory overhead for a given period and the standard amount of overhead allowed by the budget at a given level of production.
_____   15   It results from operating at a level of production different from the standard, or normal, level.
_____  16.   This method of variance analysis identifies a spending variance and an efficiency variance for variable costs.
_____  17.   In the three-variance method, this is measured by the difference between the actual hours worked multiplied by the standard overhead rate and the budget allowance based on actual hours worked.
_____  18.   In the four-variance method, this measures the difference between actual fixed cost expenditures and the amount of fixed cost budgeted.

Part III

Instructions: In the Answers column, place the letter of the choice that most correctly completes each item.

Answers

_____    1.   The best basis upon which cost standards should be set to measure controllable production efficiencies is:
a.  Theoretical standards                                 c.  Attainable standards
b.  Expected actual standards                          d.  Practical capacity
_____    2.   If a company follows a practice of isolating variances at the earliest time, the appropriate time to isolate and recognize a direct material price variance would be:
a.  When material is issued
b.  When material is purchased
c.  When material is used in production
d.  When the purchase order is originated
_____    3.   Workbench Company manufactures tables with vinyl tops. The standard material cost for the vinyl used for one type of table is $7.80, based on six square feet of vinyl at a cost of $1.30 per square foot. A production run of 1,000 tables in January resulted in usage of 6,400 square feet of vinyl at a cost of $1.20 per square foot, for a total cost of $7,680. The materials quantity variance resulting from this production run was:
a.  $120 favorable                                          c.  $480 unfavorable
b.  $520 unfavorable                                      d.  $640 favorable
_____    4.   Actual units of direct materials used were 20,000 at an actual cost of $40,000. Standard unit cost is $2.10. Assuming the materials price variance is recognized when the materials are used, the materials price variance is:
a.  $1,000 favorable                                       c.  $2,000 favorable
b.  $1,000 unfavorable                                   d.  $2,000 unfavorable
_____    5.   Information on Rodgers Company’s direct labor costs for the month of January follows:
                        Actual direct labor hours.......................        34,500
                        Standard direct labor hours....................        35,000
                        Total direct labor payroll.......................     $241,500
                        Standard direct labor rate.......................          $6.40
Rodgers’ direct labor rate variance is:
a.  $17,250 unfavorable                                  c.  $21,000 unfavorable
b.  $20,700 unfavorable                                  d.  $21,000 favorable
_____    6.   The direct labor standards for producing a unit of a product are two hours at $10 per hour. Budgeted production was 1,000 units. Actual production was 900 units, and direct labor cost was $19,000 for 2,000 direct labor hours. The direct labor efficiency variance was:
a.  $1,000 favorable                                       c.  $2,000 favorable
b.  $1,000 unfavorable                                   d.  $2,000 unfavorable

_____    7.   Of the following, the most probable reason a company would experience an unfavorable labor rate variance and a favorable labor efficiency variance is that:
a.  The mix of workers assigned to the particular job was weighted heavily toward the use of higher-paid, experienced individuals
b.  The mix of workers assigned to the particular job was weighted heavily toward the use of new, relatively low paid, unskilled workers
c.  Because of the production schedule, workers from other production areas were assigned to assist this particular process
d.  Defective materials caused more labor to be used in order to produce a standard unit
_____    8.   A debit balance in the labor-efficiency variance account indicates that:
a.  Standard hours exceed actual hours
b.  Actual hours exceed standard hours
c.  Standard rate and standard hours exceed actual rate and actual hours
d.  Actual rate and actual hours exceed standard rate and standard hours
_____    9.   How should a usage variance that is significant in amount be treated at the end of an accounting period?
a.  Reported as a deferred charge or credit
b.  Allocated among work-in-process inventory, finished goods inventory, and cost of goods sold
c.  Charged or credited to cost of goods manufactured
d.  Allocated among cost of goods manufactured, finished goods inventory, and cost of goods sold
_____  10.   The following journal entry has been recorded:
Work in Process..........................................      10,000
Labor Rate Variance....................................        2,000
Labor Efficiency Variance.....................                          1,000
Payroll.................................................                         11,000
This entry indicates that:
a.  Actual labor cost is less than standard labor cost
b.  The labor rate variance is favorable
c.  The labor efficiency variance is unfavorable
d.  Actual labor cost is more than standard labor cost
_____  11.   Under the two-variance method for analyzing factory overhead, the factory overhead applied to production is used in the computation of:
Controllable                            Volume
Variance                              Variance
a.          Yes                                         No
b.          Yes                                         Yes
c.           No                                        Yes
d.           No                                        No

_____  12.   A spending variance for factory overhead is the difference between actual factory overhead cost and factory overhead cost that should have been incurred for the actual hours worked. It results from:
a.  Price differences for factory overhead costs
b.  Quantity differences for factory overhead costs
c.  Price and quantity differences for factory overhead costs
d.  Differences caused by production volume variation

_____  13.   Under the two-variance method for analyzing factory overhead, the difference between the actual factory overhead and the factory overhead applied to production is the:
a.  Controllable variance                                c.  Efficiency variance
b.  Net overhead variance                               d.  Volume variance

Items 14 and 15 are based on the following information:

The data below relate to the month of May for Sosa Inc., which uses a standard cost system and two-variance analysis of overhead:
Actual total direct labor...............................................................     $43,400
Actual hours used.......................................................................      14,000
Standard hours allowed for good output........................................      15,000
Direct labor rate variance—debit..................................................      $1,400
Actual total overhead..................................................................     $40,250
Budgeted fixed costs...................................................................      $9,000
“Normal” activity in hours...........................................................      18,000
Total overhead application rate per standard direct labor hour.........        $3.00
_____  14.   What was Sosa’s volume variance for May?
a.  $1,250 favorable                                       c.  $1,500 favorable
b.  $1,250 unfavorable                                   d.  $1,500 unfavorable
_____  15.   What was Sosa’s controllable variance for May?
a.  $1,250 favorable                                       c.  $1,500 favorable
b.  $6,250 favorable                                       d.  $1,500 unfavorable

Part IV

Computing materials and labor variances

 

Wonderland, Inc. has a budgeted normal monthly capacity of 20,000 labor hours with a standard production of 10,000 units at this capacity. Wonderland records the materials price variance when the materials are used.  Standard costs are as follows:
Materials..................................   3 lbs. @ $1
Labor.......................................   $15 per hour

During March, 19,500 actual labor hours cost $282,750, and 9,500 units were produced using 29,200 pounds of materials at a cost of $1.10 per pound.

Instructions:
  1.   Compute the materials cost variances and label each as favorable or unfavorable.
                                                                                 Pounds                Unit Cost                                     Amount
Actual quantity used...............                           $                    Actual        $
Actual quantity used...............                                                 Standard                        
Materials price variance..........                           $                                      $                 
Actual quantity used...............                           $                    Standard     $
Standard quantity allowed.......                                                 Standard                        
Materials quantity variance......                                                                   $                 

  2.   Compute the labor cost variances and label each as favorable or unfavorable.
                                                                                   Time                       Rate                                          Amount
Actual hours worked...............                           $                    Actual        $
Actual hours worked...............                                                 Standard                        
Labor rate variance.................                           $                                      $                 
Actual hours worked...............                           $                    Standard     $
Standard hours allowed...........                                                 Standard                        
Labor efficiency variance........                                                                   $                 

  3.   Prepare the same variance analysis as above, using the diagram format as illustrated in Figure 8-4 of the text.

Part V

Journal entries for materials and labor variances

Karl Corp., which uses a standard cost accounting system, determines that the following variances arose in production during June:
                     Variance                               Amount
Materials purchase price..................     $ 900 favorable
Materials quantity...........................       750 unfavorable
Labor efficiency.............................      1,000 unfavorable
Labor rate......................................        600 unfavorable
Direct materials purchases totaled $90,000 at standard cost, while $75,000 in materials were taken from inventory for use in production. Actual direct labor totaled $80,000, while actual overhead incurred was $60,000. (Assume no variance for factory overhead.) Ten thousand units were transferred to Finished Goods at a standard cost of $15 per unit.

Instructions: Prepare the journal entries to record:
  1.   The purchase of materials (The materials price variance is recorded at the time of purchase.)
  2.   The use of materials in production
  3.   The use of labor in production
  4.   The charging of overhead to production
  5.   The transfer of finished goods to the storeroom

Account	Debit	Credit
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

                                         Part Vl       

Two-variance overhead analysis

Factory overhead for Elizabeth Company has been estimated as follows:
Fixed factory overhead..........................................       $50,000
Variable factory overhead......................................     $100,000
Estimated direct labor hours...................................        20,000
Production for the month reached 110% of the budget, and actual factory overhead totaled $163,000.

Instructions:
  1.   Determine the over or underapplied factory overhead.
Actual factory overhead............................................       $
Applied factory overhead..........................................                          
Over or underapplied factory overhead.......................       $                 
  2.   Determine the controllable and volume variances.
Actual factory overhead............................................                                 $
Overhead for capacity attained:
Fixed factory overhead..........................................       $
Variable factory overhead......................................                                                    
Controllable variance................................................                                 $                 
Factory overhead for capacity attained........................                                 $
Factory overhead applied...........................................                                                    
Volume variance.......................................................                                 $                 

Part VIl

Two-variance and four-variance overhead analysis

 Bass Company has a budgeted normal monthly capacity of 20,000 labor hours with a standard production of 10,000 units at this capacity. Standard costs for factory overhead are as follows:
Factory overhead at normal capacity:
Fixed.............................................     $20,000
Variable.........................................     $5 per labor hour
During March, actual factory overhead totaled $117,000, of which $97,000 was for variable overhead; and 19,500 labor hours were required to produce 9,500 units.

Instructions:
  1.   Compute the factory overhead variances using the two-variance method.
Actual factory overhead............................................                                 $
Budget allowance based on standard hours allowed:
Fixed overhead budgeted.......................................       $
Variable overhead.................................................                                                    
Controllable variance........................................                                 $                 
Budget allowance based on standard hours allowed......                                 $
Overhead charged to production.................................                                                    
Volume variance...................................................                                 $                 
  2.   Compute the factory overhead variances using the four-variance method (appendix).
Actual variable factory overhead....................................................             $
Budget allowance based on actual hours worked:
Variable overhead.....................................................................                                
Spending variance................................................................             $                 
Budget allowance based on actual hours worked..............................
Variable overhead.....................................................................             $
Variable overhead charged to production.........................................                                
Efficiency variance...................................................................             $                 
Actual fixed cost...........................................................................             $
Budgeted fixed cost......................................................................                                
Budget variance........................................................................             $                 
Budgeted fixed cost......................................................................             $
Standard hours × fixed rate............................................................                                
Volume variance.......................................................................             $