The Classical Idea in the Visual Arts: Greek, Roman, Italian Renaissance, and Neo-Classical

Greek Classicism
Greek Civilization:
• Greek sages concluded “Man is the measure of all things.”
• Greeks supremely self-confident and self-aware
• Greeks developed this concept of human supremacy and responsibility into a worldview that demanded a new visual expression in art.
• Artists studied human beings intensely, than distilled their newfound knowledge to capture in their art works the essence of humanity—a term that, by the Greeks’ definition, applied only to those who spoke Greek; they considered those who could not speak Greek “barbarians.”
• Greek cultural orbit included mainland Greece with the Peloponnese in the south and Macedonia in the north, the Aegean islands and the western coast of Asia Minor.
• Greek colonies in Italy, Sicily and Asia Minor rapidly became powerful independent commercial and cultural centers themselves, but remained tied to the homeland by common language, traditions, religion, and history.

Greek Art
• Greek artists sought a level of perfection that led them continually to improve upon their past accomplishments through changes in style and approach.
• In the comparatively short time span from around 900 BCE to about 100 BCE, Greek artists explored a succession of new ideas to produce a body of work in every medium—from pottery and painting to sculpture and architecture—that exhibits a clear stylistic and technical direction toward representing the visual world as we see it.

The Classical Period in Greek Art
• Framed by two major events: the defeat of the Persians in 479 BCE and the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE.
• In this brief span, the Greeks would establish an ideal of beauty that has endured in the Western world to this day.
• Characterized Greek classical art as being based on three general concepts:
o Humanism
• In embrace of humanism, the Greeks even imagined that their gods looked like perfect human beings.
• Ex. Apollo: exemplified the Greek idea. His body and mind in balance, he was athlete and musician, healer and sun god, leader of the Muses.
o Rationalism
• In their judgment of humanity, and as reflected in their art, the Greeks valued reason over emotion.
• Practiced the faith in rationality expressed by their philosophers Sophocles, Plato and Aristotle.
• Convinced that logic and reason underlie natural processes.
• Saw all aspects of human life, including the arts, as having meaning and pattern: nothing happens by accident.
• Rationalism provided an intellectual structure for the arts as can be seen in
• Creation of the orders in architecture
• Canon of proportions in sculpture
• Grounded their art in close observation of nature
• Only after meticulous study of the particular, did they begin to generalize, searching within each from for its universal ideal
• Rather than portray their models in their actual, individual detail, they sought to distill their essence.
• In so generalizing, they developed a system of perfect mathematical proportions.
o Idealism
• Humanism and rationalism produced the idealism that characterizes Classical Greek art
• Encompassed the True, the Good, and the Beautiful.
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• Maxims carved on the Temple of Apollo at Delphi:
o “Man is the measure of all things.” Seek an ideal based on the human form.
o “Know thyself.” Seek the inner significance of forms
o “Nothing in excess.” Reproduce only essential forms.
• In embrace of humanism, the Greeks even imagined that their gods looked like perfect human beings.
o Ex. Apollo: exemplified the Greek idea. His body and mind in balance, he was athlete and musician, healer and sun god, leader of the Muses.

• Greek artists of the fifth and fourth centuries BCE established a benchmark for art against which succeeding generations of artists and patrons in the Western world have since measured quality.

Greek Classical Sculpture
One of the best ways to measure the search for the Classical Ideal in Classical Art is through the development of sculpture, particularly through the Kouros (Kouroi, pl.).
 Nudity removes figure from a specific time, place, and social class
• The majority of these free standing archaic (Archaic Period: 620-480 BCE) statues are an average 5 ft. (150 cm) to 11 ft. (335 cm) in height.
• The archaic figures have an “archaic smile.”
• Some are inscribed with the name of artist while several record legends or votive offerings in sanctuaries.
• Others were funerary monuments and many were portraits of athletes or warriors.
• More than 100 of these figures survive today.
• They display a 'formalised' approach and a characteristic lack of differentiation.
• These figures are idealized, neither gods or mortal, but something in between, at once both human and divine.
• Their universal characteristics, and noncommittal names of Youth and Maiden, are demonstrative of their generic nature
• In ancient Greece the male body was the default body.
• In the Kouros figure, emphasis is placed on breadth of shoulder and athletic development.
• There is also a characteristic narrowness of waist and the roundness of the thigh and buttock, as well as the hardness of the deeply carved joints.
• The weight is evenly distributed on both legs, although one is placed in front of the other.
• He is the perfect example of what a man would ideally want to be, young, of another world, a perfect and enduring model.
• He is depicted nude as an expression of perfection, displaying dignity and brilliance of spirit

Ex. New York Kouros (Standing Youth) c. 580 BCE/Archaic Period; Kroisos (?) c. 530 BCE/Archaic Period; Kritios Boy (Kritian Boy) c. 480 BCE/Early Classical Period

Polykleitos, Doryphoros (Spear Bearer), 450-440 BCE.
• Established a canon, or accepted criterion, of consummate male beauty achieved with a system of mathematical proportions.
• The most famous and authoritative description of Polykleitos' canon comes from a 2nd Century A.D. physician named Galen who described it as follows,
o "...beauty does not consist in the elements but in the symmetry of the parts, the proportion of one finger to another, of all the fingers to the hand, of the hand to the forearm, of the forearm to the upper arm, of all the parts to all others as it is written in the canon of Polykleitos."
• Obsession with balance and harmony is expressed by each weight-bearing limb being placed in diagonal opposition to a relaxed one.
• This underscores the principle of contrapposto:
o Disposition of body parts to show movement; one part turned in opposition to the other; weight shift; one side tense and the other relaxed.
• The right side of the body has the solidity of an Ionic column, bringing stability to the energetic expression of the left.
• Doryphorus displays the transformation of body position which precedes movement, and it marks the point where the evolution of depicting motion in sculpture originates.
• He is a warrior and originally carried a spear in his left hand.
• In ancient Greece, battle was the supreme test of masculinity, yet he is not dressed in armor, for the naked body was a symbol for military might.
• His muscular, heavy body displays an internal firmness.
• In general the Greeks de-emphasized penis size in their sculpture because of its imperviousness to mental and physical control, so the hardness of his body may be read as phallic.
• His involuntary air of nonchalance the result of an elaborate and astute composition, which balances sensual scrutiny of detail with abstract spiritual contemplation.
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Compare the Doryphoros with Warrior A (Riace Warrior) c. 460-450 BCE, an original Greek bronze.

Myron, Diskobolos (Discus Thrower), Roman copy after the original bronze of c. 450 BCE.
• A new peak in the development of gesture and movement.
• Its intense, yet credible, motion is expressed in static terms.
• Movement is the physical expression of action, and should be vivid and immediate, but not so fleeting that it defies rational analysis.
• Patterns isolated within continual movement convey the whole nature of transition.
• This brings rhythmos, or rational order to motion.
• Myron achieves this through the composition of the Diskobolus.
• The limbs balance one another in a complex pattern of forms, with bisecting curves creating the feeling of a taut bow ready to explode.
• The pose suggests a winding and unwinding tension of the body emphasizing the probable trajectory of the discus.
• With the Diskobolus we see the physical expression of mutability, and a new significance attached to human action.

Another example of a classical figure in motion: Zeus c. 460 BCE.

Late Classical male sculpture
• Throughout the fifth century BCE, sculptors carefully maintained the equilibrium between simplicity and ornament that is fundamental to Greek Classical art.
• Standards established by Pheidias and Polykeitos in the mid-fifth century BCE for the ideal proportions and idealized forms had generally been accepted by the next generation of artists
• Fourth-century BCE artists, however, challenged and modified those standards.
o Developed a new canon of proportions for male figures
 8 or more “heads” tall rather than the 6 1/2- or 7-head height of earlier works.
o The calm, noble detachment characteristic of earlier figures gave way to more sensitively rendered images of men and women
o Expressions of wistful introspection, dreaminess, or even fleeting anxiety.
Ex. Praxiteles’ Hermes and the Infant Dionysos a Hellenistic copy after a Late Classical 4th-century BCE original; Lysippos’ Apoxyomenos (The Scraper) Roman copy after the bronze original of c. 330 BCE.

Greek Female Statue Types
• Kore (korai, pl.)
• More varied than the kouros
• Always clothed, poses different problem: how to relate body and drapery
• More likely to reflect changing habits and or local differences of dress
o Peplos: a draped rectangle of cloth, usually wool, folded over at the top, pinned at the shoulders, and belted to give a bloused effect
o Chiton: like the peplos, but fuller; relatively lightweight rectangle of cloth pinned along the shoulders
o Himation: cloak, draped diagonally and fastend on one shoulder; worn over chiton
• Erect, immobile, vertical pose
• Ex. Berlin Kore 570-560 BCE; Peplos Kore c. 530 BCE; Kore, from Chios (?) c. 520 BCE. All Archaic Period.
• Sitting and reclining poses
• Three Goddesses from east pediment of the Parthenon, 438-432 BCE
o Ease of movement
o No violence or pathos
o No specific action of any kind, only a deep felt poetry of being
o Soft fullness, enveloped in thin drapery
o “wet-drapery”
o “slip-strap”
o body both lusciously revealed and tantalizing veiled by clinging folds
• Standing figures
o Contrapposto
 Vertical fall of drapery on engaged leg resembles fluting of a column shaft: provides sense of stability
 Bent leg gives an impression of relaxed grace and effortless support
o Additional Classical examples: Pheidias’ Athena in cella of Parthenon; Marshalls and Young Women from the frieze of Parthenon; Caryatid from the Porch of the Maidens; Nike Adjusting Her Sandal
• Earliest depictions of fully nude women in major works of art.
o Praxiteles’ Aphrodite of Knidos c. 350 BCE
 In ancient world considered female perfecton
 Graceful S-curve which counters contrapposto of pose---and thus distances it somewhat from everyday reality

GREEK ARCHITECTURE
• Temple type
• Post and lintel construction
• Based on three orders which dictate a basic plan
o Doric, Ionic and Corinthian (a variant of the Ionic order)
• Three main divisions
o Stepped platform (stereobate and stylobate)
o Column
o Doric consists of the shaft, marked by 20 shallow vertical grooves known as flutes. The capital is made up of the flaring, cushion-like echinus and a square element called the abacus.
 All these bear strict ratio to each other, although columns become slimmer and capitals smaller and more compact over time.
o Ionic rests on an ornate rounded base that is sometimes set on a square plinth. Shaft is more slender and there is less tapering and little or no apparent swelling of the columns (entasis)
 Capital includes a large double scroll, or volute, below the abacus, which projects strongly beyond the width of the shaft.
 Lighter and more graceful
 Evokes a growing plant, something like a formalized palm tree.
 Flutes are deeper and closer together and separated by flat surfaces called fillets.
o With rare exceptions composed of sections called drums, each secured with iron dowels to the one below it.
o Entablature
o Includes all the horizontal elements that rest on the columns.
o Most complex of 3 major units
o Subdivided:
 Architrave: a stone lintel resting directly on the capitals. In Ionic order has three panels.
• Supports the triangular pediment and the roof elements
 Frieze: in Doric order is made up of grooved triglyphs and flat or sculpted metopes and a projecting horizontal cornice. In Ionic order, frieze is continuous, often sculpted.

• Vitruvius, Roman architect, most likely basing himself on Greek sources:
o “Without symmetry and proportion there can be no principles in the design of any temple; that is, if there is no precise relation between its members, as in the case of a well-shaped man. [Like the face] the other bodily members have also their measured ratios, such as the great painters and master sculptors employed for attainment of great and boundless fame.”
• In the Classical period, expressions of force and counterforce in both Doric and Ionic Temples were proportioned so exactly that their opposition produced the effect of a perfect balance of forces and a harmony of sizes and shapes.

Ex. of Doric Temple
The Parthenon, Acropolis, Athens, 448-432 BCE
• Built by the Greeks after the Persians sacked Athens in 480 BCE and destroyed the existing temple and its sculpture.
• Dedicated to the virgin goddess Athena, the patron deity in whose honor Athens was named
• Made of gleaming white marble
• Plan:
o Peripteral temple - columns surround the inner cella
o Ratio of 1:2+1; x= 2y + 1, where x is the larger number and y is the smaller number. For ex., the temple’s short ends have 8 columns and the long sides have 17:
17 = (2 x 8) = 1.
 The stylobate’s ratio of length to width is 9:4, that is,
(9 = [2 x 4] +1).
 This ratio also characterizes the cella’s proportion of length to width, the distance between the centers of two adjacent column drums (the interaxial) in proportion to the column’s diameter, and so on.
o Balance is achieved through symmetry
o Refinements = Ideal
• Depart from regular geometry
• Slight outward curve of the horizontal elements
• Each column swells about 7 inches to compensate for vertical lines appearing to curve inward.
o Spaces between the corner ones and their neighbors are smaller than the standard interval used for the colonnade as a whole
• Inside temple was a colossal cult statue of Athena by Pheidias.
• Many elements weight over five tons and the capitals and architraves almost ten tons

More on the Parthenon:

Kallikrates and Iktinos
Parthenon
Acropolis, Athens
447-438 BCE/Classical Period

Greeks recognized that our visual perception is not flawless and that it is influenced by our mental assumptions.

Iktinos and Kallikrates used an astonishing series of “optical refinements” in the proportions of the Parthenon to make it appear perfectly regular and rectangular to the human eye.

Exact measurement of the Parthenon has revealed many apparently intentional deviations from regularity and rectangularity.

The Greeks realized that we perceive vertical lines as sloping and horizontal lines as sagging in the center. They corrected for these human errors in perception.

The platform and stairs curve upward, as does the entablature (but to a lesser degree, presumably because it was farther from the viewer’s eye).

The columns and entablature also slope inward slightly to prevent their appearing to slope outward.

At the corners, the columns are thickened slightly to counteract the optical thinning effect of their being silhouetted against the sky.

The diameter of the columns bulges out by two-thirds of an inch part-way up to accommodate the human assumption that the columns will be slightly compressed by the weight they appear to bear (entasis), and the illusion of regular spacing among the columns is created by spacing that is actually irregular. The result is what many perceive as the most perfectly proportioned building ever created.

Just as the contemporary Doryphoros by Polykleitos may be seen as the culmination of nearly two centuries searching for the ideal proportions of the various human bodily parts, so, too, the Parthenon may be viewed as the ideal solution to the Greek architect’s quest for perfect proportions in Doric temple design. It’s well-spaced columns, with their slender shafts, and the capitals, with their straight-sided conical echinuses, are the ultimate refinement of the bulging and squat Doric columns and compressed capitals of the Archaic Temple of Hera at Paestum, Italy, c. 540 BCE.

The Parthenon architects and Polykleitos, the Doryphoros sculptor were kindred spirits in their belief that beautiful proportions resulted from strict adherence to harmonious numerical ratios, whether they were designing a temple more than 200 feet long or a life-size statue of a nude man.

The Parthenon’s harmonious design and mathematical precision of the sizes of its constituent elements tend to obscure the fact this temple, as actually constructed, is quite irregular in shape.
Throughout the building are pronounced deviations from the strictly horizontal and vertical lines assumed to be the basis of all Greek post-and-lintel structures.
For ex., the stylobate curves upward at the center on both the sides and the façade, forming a kind of shallow dome, and this curvature is carried up into the entablature.
Moreover, the peristyle columns lean inward slightly. Those at the corners have a diagonal inclination and are also about 2 inches thicker than the rest. If their lines are continued, they would meet about one and one-half miles above the temple. These deviations from the norm meant that virtually every Parthenon block and drum had to be carved according to the special set of specifications its unique place in the structure dictated.

This was obviously a daunting task, and a reason must have existed for these so-called refinements in the Parthenon. Some modern observers note, how the curving of horizontal lines and the tilting of vertical ones create a dynamic balance in the building—a kind of architectural contrapposto—and give it a sense of life.

The oldest recorded explanation, however, may be the correct one. Vitruvius, a Roman architect of the late first century BCE who claims to have had access to the treatise on the Parthenon Iktinos wrote—again note the kinship with the Canon of Polykleitos—maintains that these adjustments were made to compensate for optical illusions. Vitruvius states that if the stylobate is laid out on a level surface, it will appear to sag at the center and that the corner columns of a building should be thicker since they are surrounded by light and would otherwise appear thinner than their neighbors.

Ex. of Ionic Temple
 Temple of Athena Nike, Acropolis, Athens, c. 427-424 BCE.
 Slenderer proportions than Doric
 Scroll capitals
 Continuous sculpted frieze
 Amphiprostyle plan—that is, porch at each end
 Surrounded by parapet, or low wall, faced with sculpted panels depicting Athena presiding over her winged attendants, called Nikes (Victories), as they prepared for a celebration.
o Ex. Nike Adjusting Her Sandal
 Bends forward gracefully, causes ample chiton to slip off one shoulder.
 Large wings, one open and one closed, effectively balance this unstable pose
 Unlike decorative swirls of heavy fabric covering the Parthenon’s Three Goddesses or the weighty pleats of the robes of the Erechtheion’s (another example of an Ionic Temple) caryatids, the textile covering this Nike appears delicate and light, clinging to the body like wet silk, one the most discreetly erotic images in ancient art

Corinthian order
 Originally developed by the Greeks for use in interiors, but came to be used on temple exteriors as well.
 Elaborate capitals are sheathed with stylized acanthus leaves
 Romans appropriated the Corinthian order and elaborated it

Roman Classicism

The Romans admired Greek art. They imported Greek originals by the thousands and had them copied in even greater numbers. Also some of their own works were based on Greek sources, and many of their artists, from Republican times (510- 31 BCE) to the end of the empire (31 BCE-410 CE), were of Greek origin.
Roman authors tell us a good deal about the development of Greek art as it was described in Greek writings on the subject. They also discuss Roman art during the early days of the Republic, of which almost no trace survived today. However, they show little concern with the art of their own time. And, except for Vitruvius, whose treatise on architecture is of great importance for later eras, the Romans never developed a rich literature on the history and theory of their art such as the Greeks had. Indeed, some prominent Romans even viewed their own art as degenerate compared with the extraordinary achievements of the Greeks.

Roman portraiture

From literary accounts, we know that the Senate honored Rome’s great political and military leaders by putting their portraits on a public display. This custom began in Republican times and was to continue until the end of the empire many hundred years later. It probably arose from the Greek practice of placing votive statues of athletes and other important individuals in sanctuaries such as the Acropolis, Delphi, and Olympia—a practice that was gradually secularized during the Classical and Hellenistic periods.

Our first indication of a clearly Roman portrait style occurs around 100 BCE. It parallels an ancient custom. When the male head of the family died, he was honored with a wax portrait, which was then preserved in a special shrine or family altar. At funerals, these ancestral images were carried in the procession, and masks were even made from them for chosen participants to wear, in order to create a living parade of the family’s illustrious ancestors. Such mimicry may have fostered a desire among the Roman elite for similarly true-to-life portraits in bronze and marble.

Verism
Ex. Head of a Roman Patrician (Head of an Old Roman)
c. 75-50 BCE
marble, approximately 1’ 2”

Somber face, grave demeanor.
Project patriarchal dignity.
Detailed record of the face’s topography, in which the sitter’s character appears only incidentally.
This style is verism, a documentary realism.
The features are true to life, but the sculptor has emphasized them selectively to bring out a specifically Roman personality: stern, rugged, devoted to duty.
It is a father image of daunting authority.
The facial details are like individual biographical data that distinguish it from others.

Idealism
Ex. Augustus from Primaporta
Early 1st century CE (perhaps a copy of a bronze statue of c. 20 BCE)
Marble, originally colored, 6’ 8” high

New trend in Roman portraiture, which reaches a climax in the images of Augustus himself.

Sophisticated combination of Greek idealism and Roman individuality—in effect, a new Augustan ideal.

This was the most popular image of the emperor.

Heroic, idealized body which is derived from the Doryphoros of Polykleitos.

Augustus, the emperor, reaches out toward us as if to address us in person.
His clothing, including the rich allegorical program on the breastplate, has a concreteness of surface texture that conveys the actual touch of cloth, metal, and leather.
The breastplate illustrates Augustus’s diplomatic triumph over the Parthians in 20 BCE, when he recovered the legionary standards lost in Roman defeats in 53 and 36 BCE.
His head is idealized.
Small details are omitted, and the focus on the eyes gives it something of an inspired look.
Even so, the face is a definite, individual likeness, as we know from many other portraits of Augustus.
All Romans would have recognized it immediately, for they knew it from coins and countless other representations.

Augustus of Primaporta
• Focus on the individual
• Greek pose, roman clothes
• Emperor Augustus
• The imperator and creator of Pax Romana stands in a contrapposto that echoes the one of classical Greek athletes, such as the Doryphoros of Polykleitos.
• The cupid on the dolphin at his feet hints at the origin of the gens Julia, namely Venus or Aphrodite, the goddess of love. The dolphin itself refers to the naval victory at Actium.
• This support strongly suggests that the statue is a copy of a lost bronze original.
• The exact location for this original has been a question of speculation; the sanctuary of Athena at Pergamum is one of many suggestions.
• Reconstructions differ on the lost objects once held by the emperor (the right hand was never found).
• Perhaps he is just making an address, or perhaps he once held a wreath of the imperial laurel, for which the Villa of Livia was famous.
• What has attracted most scholars, however, is the elaborate breast plate, whose throng of figures and symbols lend themselves to a rich spectrum of interpretations of Augustan art and propaganda.
• The central group depicts a Parthian giving back the lost eagle from Carrhae to a Roman general.
• If historically correct, this latter would be Tiberius, but a symbolic reading permits him to be Romulus (with the wolf at his feet), Aeneas, Mars or some other important figure.
• Apart from some female seated figures, representing conquered peoples such as the Gauls and the Hispanians, the rest form a cosmic setting: the sky god Caelus, Sol in his chariot, Aurora, Apollo on a winged griffin, Diana on a stag; all flying around above Tellus who is cradling two babies.
• These identifications may vary according to the aims of different scholars, but taken as a whole, the scene conveys the god-given peace, order and fertility accomplished by the new ruler of the world.
• The idealized and smooth face of the emperor, together with the comma-shaped locks over his forehead, constitutes the most common type of Augustus-portraits, to date found in some 170 replicas.

Augustus still conformed to Roman republican customs by being clean-shaven. Some later emperors, in contrast, adopted the Greek fashion of wearing beards as an outward sign of culture and refinement.

It is not surprising to find a strongly classicizing trend, often of a peculiarly cool, formal sort in the sculpture of the second century CE. especially during the reign of Hadrian (c. 117-138 CE) and Marcus Aurelius (c. 161-180 CE), both of them private men deeply immersed in Greek culture.

See this quality in equestrian bronze sculpture of Marcus Aurelius.

Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius
c. 176 CE
bronze, originally gilded; 11’ 6” high

Shown as ever victorious.
The powerful and spirited horse expresses this martial spirit, but the emperor himself is a model of stoic calm.
Addressing us like Augustus, but without weapons or armor, Marcus Aurelius appears as a bringer of peace rather than military hero, for this is how he saw himself and his reign.

Italian Renaissance Art

Reviving classical values.
Rediscovery of ancient texts in Greek and Latin, and their re-editing.
Use the wisdom of antiquity as a guide in creating a new one.

During the Renaissance there was little or no distinction made between Greek and Roman art; only in later centuries did historians work to differentiate the “Greco” from the “Roman.”

Florentines believed that they were the inheritors of the Classical tradition, a “New Athens.” While Florence had in fact been carved out of a malarial swamp by Roman legions in the distant past, many of the supposed links between Florence and the Classical era were historically inaccurate. For example, many Florentines thought that their baptistery had been built in antiquity, when it fact it was a more recent medieval structure. Regardless, during the fifteenth century, patrons of the arts were determined to remake Florence in imitiation of the Classical past.

Intellectual Trends: Humanism and Neoplatonism
One major aspect of Renaissance culture was its embrace of “humanism.” This term applied to a philosophical outlook according to which human values have greater significance than religious belief. In contrast to the medieval period’s focus on the divine, thinkers during the Renaissance emphasized the important accomplishments of philosophers, poets, mathematicians, scientists, and other learned peoples. The development of humanism provided an intellectual environment in which artists could justify higher social status than before; by training in the humanities, artists sought to put themselves on the same intellectual level as their wealthy patrons, and to separate the visual arts from their history as menial crafts.

A major part of the humanist’s tradition was a revival of Greek and Roman scholarship. Intellectuals naturally turned to Plato (427-347 BCE), the foremost philosopher of the ancient Greek world. Plato dealt with nearly every major question surrounding human existence and had developed a systematic philosophy of the “art of living.” The study of Plato’s work by Renaissance scholars was called “Neoplatonism.”

“Rebirth” of Italian Culture
In western Europe, many of the developments of the late Middle Ages, such as urbanization, intellectualism, and vigorous artistic patronage, reached a maturity in the 15th century. Underlying these changes was the economic growth in the late 14th century that gave rise to a prosperous middle class of bankers and merchants. Unlike the hereditary aristocracy that had dominated society through the late Middle Ages, these business people had attained their place in the world through personal achievement. In the early 15-century, the newly rich middle class supported scholarship, literature, and the arts. Their generous patronage resulted in the explosion of learning and creativity known as the Renaissance. Artists and patrons, especially in Italy, began to appreciate classical thought and art, as well as the natural world.

The characterization of the period as a renaissance (from the French word for “rebirth) originated with 14th-century scholars like the great humanist and poet Petrarch. Petrarch looked back at the 1000 years extending from the collapse of the Roman Empire to his own time and determined that history fell into 3 distinct periods: The ancient classical world, a time of high human achievement, was followed by a decline during the Middle Ages, or “dark ages.” The third period was the modern world—his own era—a revival, a rebirth, a renaissance, when humanity began to emerge from an intellectual and cultural stagnation and scholars again appreciated the achievements of the ancients. It was a time when human beings, their deeds, and their belief had primary importance.

Humanism, a 19th-century term, is used narrowly to designate the revival of classical learning and literature. More generally, in 14th- and 15th century western Europe, humanism embodied a worldview that focused on human beings; an education that perfected individuals through the study of past models of civic and personal virtue; a value system that emphasized personal effort and responsibility; and a physically or intellectually active life that was directed at a common good as well as individual nobility. To this end, the Greek and Latin languages had to be mastered so that classical literature—history, biography, poetry, letters, orations—could be studied.For Petrarch and his contemporaries in Italy, the defining element of the age was an appreciation of Greek and Roman writers.

Humanism also fostered a belief in individual potential and encouraged individual achievement. Whereas people in medieval society had relinquished any attempt to change the course of their lives, attributing events to divine will, those in Renaissance Italy adopted a more secular stance. Humanists not only encouraged individual improvement but also rewarded excellence with fame and honor. Achieving and excelling through hard work became moral imperatives.

Good citizens
Despite the emphasis on individualism, humanism also had a civic dimension. Citizen participation in the social, political and economic life of their communities was obligatory. The intersection of art with humanist doctrines during the Renaissance can be seen in the popularity of subjects selected from classical history or mythology, in the increased concern with developing perspectival systems and depicting anatomy accurately, in the revival of portraiture and other self-aggrandizing forms of patronage, and in citizens’ extensive participation in civic and religious art commissions.
Wealth and Power
Constant fluctuations in Italy’s political and economic spheres contributed to these developments in Renaissance art as well. The shifting power relations among the numerous city-states fostered the rise of princely courts and control of cities by despots. Condottieri (military leaders) with large numbers of mercenary troops at their disposal played a major role in the ongoing struggle for power. Princely courts , such as those in Urbino and Mantua, emerged as cultural and artistic centers. Certainly, high-level patronage required significant accumulated wealth, so, during the 15th century, individuals and families who had managed to prosper economically came to the fore. Among the best known was the Medici family, which acquired its vast fortune from banking. Not only did this money allow the Medici to wield great power, but it also permitted them to commission art and architecture on a scale rarely seen, then or since. Such lavish patrons of art and learning were the Medici that, to this day, the term “Medici” is widely used to refer to a generous patron of the fine arts.

The Medici, along with many other art patrons, princes, popes, and despots, expressed more than a passing interest in humanism. The association of humanism with education and culture appealed to accomplished individuals of high status.

The historical context that gave rise to this “rebirth” and the importance of patronage account for the character of Renaissance art. In addition, the sheer serendipity of the abundance of exceedingly talented artists also must be considered. Renaissance Italy experienced major shifts in artistic models. In part, these shifts were due to a unique artistic environment where skilled artists, through industriousness and dialogue with others, forever changed the direction and perception of art.

Ex.
Leonardo da Vinci
Vitruvian Man
c. 1490
Ink, 13 1/2 x 9 5/8”
Artists throughout history have turned to geometric shapes and mathematical proportions to see the ideal representation of the human form.
Leonardo and before him, Vitruvius, equated the ideal man with both circle and square.
Ancient Egyptian artists laid out square grids as aids to design. Medieval artists adapted a variety of figures, from triangles to pentagrams. The Byzantines used circles swung from the bridge of the nose to create face, head, and halo.

The first-century BCE Roman architect and engineer Vitruvius, in his 10-volume De architectura (On Architecture), wrote: “For if a man be placed flat on his back, with his hands and feet extended, and a pair of compasses centered at his navel, the fingers and toes of his two hand and feet will touch the circumference of a circle described therefrom. And just as the human body yields a circular outline, so too a square figure may be found. For if we measure the distance from the soles of the feet to the top of the head, and then apply that measure to the outstretched arms, the breadth will be found to be the same as the height.” [Book III, Chapter 1, Section 2).

Vitruvius determined that the body should be 8 heads high. (Think of Lysippos’s Apoxyomenos [The Scraper].)

Leonardo added his own observations in the reversed writing he always used for his notebooks when he created his well-known diagram for the ideal male figure, called the Vitruvian Man.

“Beauty, which is a form of truth, must depend on some system of measurement and proportion” as Plato explained in the Timaeus; artists working from classical models made it their business to rediscover such a system in the worked of art and buildings of Antiquity.

Such an emphasis on measurement, allied to reason, is summarized in the Leonardo’s Virtuvian Man:
Expresses the concurrence between beauty, mathematics and Man.
For the renaissance artist, Man, within the circle of God, is the measure of all things and he rules himself and his affairs by the application of reason. Antique art, centered on the depiction of a noble mind and an ideal body, provides convincing models for imitation.

Donatello
David
c. 1428-1432/Early Italian Renaissance
bronze, 5’ 2 1/4” high

First free-standing—sculptured in the round, not attached to architecture—life-size nude since antiquity.

Donatello reintroduced the concept of contrapposto.

Received patronage of Medici.
Most likely David was created for the Palazzo Medici courtyard.

The nude, as such, proscribed in the Christian Middle Ages as both indecent and idolatrous, had been shown rarely—and then only in biblical or moralizing contexts, such as the story of Adam and Eve or descriptions of sinners in Hell.

Donatello reinvented the classical nude, even though his subject is not a pagan god, hero, or athlete but the biblical David, the young slayer of Goliath and the symbol of the independent Florentine republic.
Likely the helmet is a reference to the dukes of Milan, who were again warring against Florence in the mid-1420s.
The statue is thus a patriotic public monument identifying David—weak but favored by God and with Florence, and Goliath with Milan.

Donatello chose to model an adolescent boy, not a full-grown youth like the athletes of Greece, so that the figure lacks their swelling muscles.

David possess both the relaxed classical contrapposto stance and proportions and sensuous beauty of Greek Praxitelean gods.
The expression of David is also classical.
The lowered gaze signifies humility, which triumphs over the sinful pride of Goliath.
David was inspired by classical examples, which equate with modesty and virtue.

The invoking of classical poses and formats appealed to the humanist Medici.

Ex.
Michelangelo
David
1501-1504/High Italian Renaissance
marble, 13’ 5”

Faith in the human image as the supreme vehicle of expression gave him a sense of kinship with Classical sculpture closer than any other Renaissance artist.

Conceptually paralleling Plato’s ideas, Michelangelo believed that the image the artist’s hand produces must come from the idea in the artist’s mind. The idea, then is the reality that the artist’s genius has to bring forth. But artists are not the creators of the ideas they conceive. Rather they find their ideas in the natural world, reflecting the absolute idea, which, for the artist, is beauty. In this way, the strongly Platonic strain of the Renaissance theory of imitating nature makes it a revelation of the high truths hidden within nature.

One of the Michelangelo’s best know observations about sculpture is that the artist must proceed by finding the idea—the image locked in the stone, as it were—so, by removing the excess stone, the sculptor extricates the idea, like Pygmalion bringing forth the living form.

Michelangelo did break strongly from the lessons of his predecessors and contemporaries in one important aspect: he mistrusted the application of mathematical methods as guarantees of beauty in proportion. Measure and proportion, he believed, should be “kept in the eyes.”

David is symbol, the defiant hero of the Florentine republic,
a champion of a just cause.
To Michelangelo, David embodied the virtue, Fortitude, but here the figure has a civic rather than a moral significance.
Vibrant with pent-up energy, he faces the world.
The style of the sculpture proclaims an ideal very different from the wiry slenderness of Donatello’s youthful David.
Michelangelo had just spent several years in Rome, where he had been deeply impressed with the emotion-charged, muscular bodies of Hellenistic sculpture (Ex. Laocoön and His Sons, early first century CE/Hellenistic.).
In his David, Michelangelo, without strictly imitating the antique style, captured the tension of Lysippian athletes and the psychological insight and emotionalism of Hellenistic statuary.
This David differs from those of Donatello and Verrocchio in much the same way later Hellenistic statues departed from their Classical predecessors.
Their heroic scale, their superhuman beauty and power, and the swelling volumes of their forms became part of Michelangelo’s own style and, through him, of Renaissance art in general.
Michelangelo invested his efforts in presenting towering pent-up emotion rather than calm ideal beauty. He transferred his own doubts, frustrations, and passions into the great figures he created or planned.

Michelangelo was the spiritual heir not of Polykleitos and Pheidias, but of the masters of the Laocoön group.

 

Ex. Donatello
Gattamelata (Equestrian statue of Erasmo da Narni)
Padua, Italy
c. 1445-1450/Early Italian Renaissance
bronze, approximately 11’ c 13’
Condottiere Erasmo da Narni, nicknamed Gattamelata (“honeyed cat)

Although equestrian statues occasionally had been set up in Italy in the late Middle Ages, Donatello’s Gattamelata is the first to rival the grandeur of the mounted portraits of antiquity, such as that of Marcus Aurelius, which the artist must have seen while visiting Rome.

Donatello’s contemporaries, one of whom described Gattamelata as sitting “there with great magnificence like a triumphant Caesar,” recognized this reference to antiquity.

Gattamelata’s face is set in a mask of dauntless resolution and unshakable will—the very portrait of the male Renaissance individualist. Such a man—intelligent, courageous, ambitious, and frequently of humble origin—could, by his own resourcefulness and on his own merits, rise to a commanding position in the world.

Sandro Botticelli
The Birth of Venus
c. 1484-1486/Early Italian Renaissance
tempera on canvas, 5’ 8” x 9’ 1 7/8”

Botticelli produced works for the Medici.

Botticelli’s Venus is derived from a variant of The subject itself is was inspired by the Homeric “Hymn to Aphrodite.”

Botticelli’s nude presentation of the Venus figure was in itself innovative.
The nude, especially the female nude, had been proscribed during the Middle Ages. Its appearance on such a scale and the artist’s use of an ancient Venus statue of the Venus pudica (modest Venus) type---a Hellenistic variant of Praxiteles’s famous Aphrodite form Knidos as a model could have been drawn the charge of paganism and infidelity. But in the more accommodating Renaissance culture and under the protection of the powerful Medici, the depiction went unchallenged.

Botticelli’s style is clearly distinct from the earnest search many other artists pursued to comprehend humanity, and the natural world through rational and empirical order. His elegant and beautiful style seems to have ignored all of the scientific knowledge experimental art had gained (e.g., in the areas of perspective and anatomy). His style paralleled the allegorical pageants staged in Florence as chivalric tournaments, but structured around allusions to classical mythology. Ultimately, Botticelli created a style of visual poetry, parallel to the Petrarchan love poetry that Lorenzo de’ Medici wrote. Botticelli’s paintings possess a lyricism and courtliness that appealed to cultured patrons such as the Medic.

The subject of The Birth of Venus is clearly meant to be serious, even solemn. By the mid-15th century an argument could be made for fusing the Christian faith with ancient mythology.
These Neoplatonists were strongly influenced by Greek philosopher Plato who enjoyed great prestige during the late 15th century and after.

Marsilio Ficino, a priest, believed that the life of the universe, including human life, was linked to God by a spiritual circuit continuously ascending and descending, so that all revelation—whether from the Bible, Plato or classical myths—was one. He also proclaimed that beauty, love and beatitude, being phases of the same circuit, were one. Thus Neoplatonists could speak of both the “celestial Venus (the nude Venus born of the sea as in our picture) and the Virgin Mary as sources of “divine love” (meaning the recognition of divine beauty).

The celestial Venus, according to Ficino, dwells purely in the sphere of the Mind.
Her twin, the ordinary Venus, gives rise to “human love.” Ficino wrote the Medici prince: “Venus…is a nymph of excellent comeliness, born of heaven, and more than others beloved by God all highest. Her soul and mind are Love and Charity, her eyes Dignity and Magnanimity, the hands Liberality and Magnificence. The whole, then, is Temperance and Honesty, Charm and Splendor. Oh, what exquisite beauty!.... a nymph of such nobility has been wholly given into your hands! If you were to unite with her in wedlock and claim her as yours she would make all your years sweet.”

Once we know that Botticelli’s painting has this quasi-religious meaning, it seems less surprising that the wind god Zephyr and the breeze goddess Aura on the left look so much like angels. It also makes sense that the Hora on the right, personifying Spring, who welcomes Venus ashore, recalls the relationship of St. John the Baptist to Christ in a baptismal scene.

As baptism is a “rebirth in God,” so the birth of Venus evokes the hope for “rebirth,” from which the Renaissance takes its name.

Ex. Raphael
School of Athens
Fresco in the Stanza della Segnatura, Vatican Rome
c. 1510-1511/
19 x 27”

The Stanza della Segnatura in the Vatican Palace housed Pope Julius II’s personal library. (Pope Julius II associated himself with the humanists and with Roman emperors.)

Raphael’s cycle of frescoes on its walls and ceiling refer to the four branches of learning: theology, philosophy, law, and the arts.
The program is derived in part from the Francisan St. Bonaventure, who sought to reconcile reason and faith, and from St. Thomas Aquinas, the Dominican chiefly responsible for reviving Aristotelian philosophy.

The Stanza (room) represents a summation of High Italian Renaissance humanism, for it attempts to unify all understanding into one grand scheme.

Of all the frescoes in the Stanza della Segnatura, The School of Athens is the perfect embodiment of the classical spirit of the High Italian Renaissance.
Its subject is “the Athenian school of thought,” a group of famous Greek philosophers gathered around Plato and Aristotle, each in a characteristic pose or activity. Raphael depicted these luminaries—rediscovered by Renaissance thinkers—conversing and explaining their various theories and ideals.

Body and spirit, action and emotion, are now balanced harmoniously, and all members of this great assembly play their roles with magnificent, purposeful clarity.
Raphael makes each philosopher reveal “the intention of his soul.” He further distinguishes the relations among individuals and groups, and links them in a formal rhythm.
The composition is symmetrical in design, as well as the interdependence of the figures and their architectural setting.

Raphael’s building has a lofty dome, barrel, vault, and colossal statuary which is classical in spirit, yet Christian in meaning.

Many of the figures incorporate portraits of Raphael’s friends and patrons.
At center stage is Plato—whose face resembles Leonardo’s—is holding his book of cosmology and numerology. Timaeus, the book, provided the basis of much of the Neoplatonism that came to pervade Christianity.
To Plato’s left is his pupil Aristotle who grasps a volume of his Ethics, which like is science, is grounded in what is knowable in the material world. The books explain why one is pointing to the heavens, the other to the earth.
There stand reconciled the two most important Greek philosophers, whose seemingly opposite approaches were deemed complementary by many Renaissance humanists.
To Plato’s right is his mentor, Socrates, in a purple robe, who was already viewed as a precursor of Jesus because he died for his beliefs.
Seated on the far right of Plato in the foreground is the bearded Pythagoras, who believed in a rational universe based on harmonious proportions, the foundation for much of Greek philosophy.
Pythagoras has his sets of numbers and harmonic ratios arranged on a pair of inverted tables that each achieve a total of the divine number ten. They in turn refer to the two tablets with the Ten Commandments.
Seated to the left of Pythagoras is Michelangelo against a block of stone, as a brooding philosopher, Heraclitus.

Colossal statues of Apollo and Athena, patron god of the arts and goddess of wisdom oversee the interaction. Plato and Aristotle serve as the central figures around whom Raphael carefully arranged the others. Appropriately, ancient philosophers, men concerned with the ultimate mysteries that transcend this world, stand on Plato’s side. On Aristotle’s side are the philosophers and scientists concerned with nature and human affairs.
Ex.Titian
Bacchanal
c. 1518
oil on canvas, 5’ 8 7/8” x 6’ 4”

Titian’s Bacchanal of about 1518 is frankly pagan, inspired by an ancient author’s description of such a revel.
A number of the figures in the Bacchanal reflect the influence of classical art.
Titian visualizes the realm of classical myths as part of the natural world, inhabited not by animated statues but by beings of flesh and blood.
The figures of the Bacchanal are idealized just enough to persuade us that they belong to a long-lost Golden Age.
They invite us to share their blissful state.

Neoclassicism

By the end of the18th century industrial manufacture was being developed—a new source of wealth. Social visionaries expected industry to expand the middle class but also to provide a better material existence for all classes, an interest that expanded beyond purely economic concerns. Keep in mind the middle class was very small at this time. Wealth and power were centered in an aristocratic elite who owned or controlled land worked by the largest and the poorest class—the farmers.

What became know was the Industrial Revolution was complemented by a revolution in politics, spurred by a new philosophy that conceived of all white men (some thinkers included women and minorities) as deserving equal rights and opportunities. The American Revolution of 1776 and the French Revolution of 1789 were the seismic results of this dramatically new concept.

Developments in politics and economics were themselves manifestations of a broader philosophical revolution: the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment was a radically new synthesis of ideas about humanity, reason, nature, and God that had arisen during the Renaissance and during classical Greek and Roman times.

What distinguished the Enlightenment proper from its antecedents was the late 17th- and early 18th-century thinkers generally optimistic view that humanity and its institutions could be reformed, if not perfected.

Bernard de Fontenelle, a French popularizer of 17th-century scientific discoveries , writing in 1702, anticipated “a century which will become more enlightened day by day, so that all previous centuries will be lost in darkness by comparison.” At the end of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th century, such hopes were expressed by a handful of thinkers. After 1740, the number and power of such voices grew, so that their views increasingly dominated every sphere of intellectual life, including that of the European courts.

They did not agree on all matters. Perhaps the matter that most unified these thinkers was the question of the purpose of humanity.
They rejected the conventional notions that men and women were here to serve God or the ruling class. They insisted that humans were born to serve themselves, pursue their own happiness and fulfillment. The purpose of the State was to facilitate this pursuit. Generally Enlightenment thinkers were optimistic that men and women, when set free from their political and religious bonds, could be expected to act both rationally and morally. Thus, in pursuing their own happiness, they would promote the happiness of others.

Three artistic styles prevailed during the Enlightenment, but the most characteristic was Neoclassicism.

The Enlightenment’s emphasis on rationality in part fueled the classical focus. The geometric harmony of classical art and architecture seemed to embody Enlightenment ideals.

In addition, classical cultures represented the height of civilized society, and Greece and Rome served as models of enlightened political organization.

These cultures with their traditions of liberty, civic virtue, morality, and sacrifice served as ideal models during a period of great political upheaval. Given such traditional associations, it is not coincidental that Neoclassicism was particularly appealing during the French and American Revolutions.

In essence, Neoclassicism presents classical subject matter—mythological or historical—in a style derived from classical Greek and Roman sources.

Some Neoclassical art was conceived to please the senses, some to teach moral lessons. In its didactic manifestations, usually history paintings, Neoclassicism was one of the chief vehicles for conveying Enlightenment values.

The Neoclassical style arose in part in reaction to the dominant style of the early 18th century, known as Rococo—refined, fanciful and often playful style.

Other sources stimulated interest in the Neoclassical:
Discoveries made at Herculaneum and Pompeii, prosperous Roman towns near Naples that had been buried in 79 CE by the sudden eruption of Mount Vesuvius. In 1738, archaeologists began to uncover evidence of the catastrophe at Herculaneum, and 10 years later unearthed the remains of Pompeii. The extraordinary archaeological discoveries made at the two sites, published in numerous illustrated books, excited interest in classical art and artifacts and encouraged the development of Neoclassicism.

German archaeologist and historian (first modern art historian) Johann Joachim Winckelmann was the leading theoretician of Neoclassicism. He was an advocate of the classical style. In 1755, Winckelmann published a pamphlet, Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture, in which he attacked the Rococo as decadent and argued that only by imitating Greek art could modern artists become great again. He designated Greek art as the most perfect to come from human hands. He characterized Greek sculpture as manifesting a “noble simplicity and quiet grandeur.”

In 1764, Winckelmann published the second of his widely influential treatises, The History of Ancient Art, which many consider the beginning of modern art history.

The enthusiasm for classical antiquity permeated much of the scholarship of the time.

NEOCLASSICISM

Values: Order, solemnity

Tone: Calm, rational

Subjects: Greek and Roman history, mythology

Technique: Stressed drawing with lines, not color, no trace of brushstrokes

Role of art: Morally uplifting, inspirational

The leading French Neoclassical painter of the era was Jacques-Louis David, who dominated French art during the Revolution and subsequent reign of Napoleon. In 1774, David won the Prix de Rome. He remained in Rome until 1780, assimilating the principles of Neoclassicism. After his return to Paris, David produced a series of severely undecorated, anti-Rococo paintings that extolled the antique virtues of stoicism, masculinity, and patriotism.

The first and most influential of these was the Oath of the Horatii, a stark but heroic canvas, which was a royal commission. To set the model for neoclassical academic painters of the 19th Century.

Ex.
Jacques-Louis David
Oath of the Horatii
1784
Oil on canvas, approx. 11’ x 14’

Oath of the Horatii is the most famous example of a classical model of virtue. Keep in mind that Louis 16th was still on the throne.

This painting illustrating the willing sacrifice of three young men for the integrity of the Roman Republic was interpreted by the French bourgeoise as a call to revolution.

Characteristics of style: shallow space, austere, rigorous linearity, clarity of contour, sculpturesque sharpness of modeling and harsh but clear handling of light and shadow, carefully modeled figures and precisely painted archeological details

Three Roman arches of the severely simple setting separate the figures like niches for statuary.
The figures are spot-lit against a plain background.
To assure historical accuracy, David dressed dummies in Roman costumes and made Roman helmets that he could then copy.

David’s subject matter came directly from the 17th-century tragedy Horace by Pierre Corneille. This was a touchstone of Classical drama known by any educated person—in the way we, today, would know Hamlet or Macbeth.

The narrative of the play: The triplet champions of early Rome were summoned to settle the war with neighboring Alba by combat with that city’s champions—who just happened to be their own cousins—the likewise triplet Curiatii.

Tangled web of kinship: the wife of the youngest Horatius, the only warrior of the six to survive, was sister to the Curiatii. His own sister Camilla was engaged to one of his victims. Camilla also becomes a victim. When the young Horatius finds her mourning her beloved Curiatii, he kills his own sister on the spot.

In the center stands the father of the Horatii, Horatius Proclus, dedicating the swords of his 3 sons who swear to defend the Roman republic against the plotting Curiatii—that is, to triumph or die for the honor of Rome.
At the right, the women and children collapse in a series of fluid, rhythmic curves. They include the sisters of the Horatii, one of whom is engaged to an enemy combatant and is overcome by her tragic destiny. In the shadows, the wife of Horatius comforts her grandchildren.
This illustrated the new mood of self-sacrifice instead of self-indulgence.

Just as the French Revolution would overthrew the decadent royals, this painting marked a new age of stoicism.

David demonstrated the difference between the old and new through contrasting men’s straight, rigid contours with the curved, soft shapes of the women.
Men willing to sacrifice themselves for the greater good versus the women who can not rise above their personal, selfish feelings.

David’s Portraiture
Much in demand.
Ex.
Jacques-Louis David
Madame Récamier
1780
oil on canvas
5’ 8” x 7’ 11 3/4”

One of the most intelligent and fascinating women of her period.
Furnished her salon in the popular Pompeian style.
Here she reclines n the classical manner on a chaise lounge, just as she might have done on the days when she received guests.
Flowing white gown is draped with deep folds reminiscent of antique statuary.

The only other pieces of furniture are the footstool and bronze lamp, both drawn from Pompeian originals.

Clarity of the outlines of the figure, silhouette of the head, austere setting, orderly elegant effect.

After the French Revolution, David took on the role of power broker, with far-reaching effects. He was among those who voted for the death of Louis 16th. In addition, his interests in Greek and Roman antiquities influenced the official art of Europe and America well into the 19th century.

David’s craftsmanship was on a par with that of any of the master painters of the past.

Moreover, he influenced future painters like Picasso, who owed some of cool, objective character of their work to the neoclassical art of David.

Ex. Magritte
Perspective: Madame Récamier
1950/Surrealism
oil on canvas, 25 1/2 x 31 7/8 in.

A meticulous, skillful technician, Magritte is noted for works that contain an extraordinary juxtaposition of ordinary objects or an unusual context that gives new meaning to familiar things. This juxtaposition is frequently termed magic realism, of which Magritte was the prime exponent. In addition to fantastic elements, he displayed a mordant wit, creating surrealist versions of famous paintings, as in Madame Recamier de David in which an elaborate coffin is substituted for the reclining woman in the famous portrait by Jacques Louis David.

Following Napoleon’s rise to power in 1799, David, previously an ardent republican, switched his allegiance to the new dictator. David’s new artistic task, the glorification of Napoleon.
Napoleon recognized the potential of David’s art as propaganda.
Napoleon shared the popular enthusiasm for antiquity. His chosen models were Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar.
Napoleon believed that Caesar’s career and his own had many parallels.
The fasces became the emblem of authority and the eagles of the Roman legions the insignia of the French battalions.

The forms and images of ancient glory had a vast appeal to Napoleon, a man of modest birth.

Napoleon envisioned France as the leader of a new Roman empire.

Ex.
Jacques-Louis David
Napoleon Crossing the Saint-Bernard
1800-1801
oil on canvas, 8’ 11” x 7’ 7”

An early, idealized account of Napoleon leading his troops across the Alps into Italy in 1800.

Napoleon actually made the crossing on a donkey.

David depicts Napoleon calmly astride a rearing horse, exhorting us to follow him.

Windblown cloak, extension of his arm—suggests that Napoleon controls the winds as well.

David flattered Napoleon by reminding the viewer of two other great generals from history who had accomplished this difficult feat: Charlemagne and Hannibal.
David etched the names of all 3 generals in the rock in the lower left.

Neoclassical in firmness of drawing.

Antonio Canova
Napoleon as Mars the Peacekeeper
1803-1806
Marble with gilded bronze staff and figure of Victory
11' high
Wellington Museum, London--Apsley House
Emperor Napoleon commissioned this statue in 1802 because he wanted to be immortalized by Canova--who was then the considered by many to be Europe's greatest artist.

He is represented in the guise of Mars, the ancient Roman god of war. This colossal nude figure depicts the conqueror as a victorious and peace-giving Mars.

The head is idealized.
The figure is based on statues of ancient rulers in the guise of nude classical deities.

By the time, the sculpture was completed in 1811, Napoleon was embarrased by its nudity.

Also his position had become less secure. The following year he entered the catastrophic Russian campaign.

The godlike image did not seem fit for public display.

The heroic concept no longer seemed completely relevant.
So Napoleon decided not to put the work on public display.
It was hidden away in the Louvre until it emerged in 1815.

After the Duke of Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo, the British government bought and presented the statue to the Duke as a trophy of victory--as well as a reminder of how quickly the powerful can fall.

It is still displayed in Wellington's home in London.

Antonio Canova
Pauline Borghese as Venus
1808
Length 79"

The Emperor's sister was married into Italian nobility as part of their legitimation as the new pan-European dynasty.
Pauline herself requested that she be represented as Venus Victorious.

In his portrait, Canova obligingly imagined her as simultaneously displaying the dignified pose of a patrician Roman matron--and the careless nudity of a goddess for whom mortal opinion is nothing.

In public, it would have caused a scandal.
But its intended audience was limited to those whose sophistication in such matters could be assumed.
Only some members of the Borghese family and friends were allowed to see the work.

Their visits were arranged to take place at night in the dramatic illumination and deep shadow of torchlight.

Canova also favored this same theatrical device in displaying his work to prospective clients.

The reclining Pauline Bonaparte in the center of the room holds an apple in her hand evoking the Venus Victrix in the judgement of Paris, who was chosen to settle a dispute between Juno (power), Minerva (arts and science) and Venus (love). The same subject was painted on the ceiling by Domenico de Angelis (1779), framed by Giovan Battista Marchetti's tromp d'oeil architecture, and was inspired by a famous relief on the façade of the Villa Medici.
This marble statue of Pauline in a highly refined pose is considered a supreme example of the Neoclassical style. Canova executed this portrait without the customary drapery of a person of high rank, an exception at the time, thus transforming this historical figure into a goddes of antiquity in a pose of classical tranquillity and noble semplicity.
The wooden base, draped like a catafalque, once contained a mechanism that caused the sculpture to rotate, as in the case of other works by Canova. The roles of artwork and spectator were thus reversed, it was the sculpture that moved whilst the spectator stood still and observed the splendid statue from all angles. In the past, viewers admired the softly gleaming sculpture of Pauline by candlelight and its lustre was not only due to the fine quality of the marble but also to the waxed surface, which has been recently restored.

Neoclassicism in America

 

The first to introduce neoclassical architecture to America.
For Jefferson, architecture was joy in itself, the carrier of all the things he held in the highest regard—taste, cultivation, and reason, the noblest aspirations of civilization, both past and present.
Influenced by Palladio’s Four Books of Architecture, Robert Morris’s Select Architecture (1775) and Charles Louis Clérisseau’s Antiquités de la France (Monuments de Nîmes, 1778).
One of the most significant events of Jefferson’s French sojourn was his visit to Nîmes, where he saw for the first time an original Roman building—the Maison Carrée, a temple of the first century BCE.

Ex.
Thomas Jefferson
Virginia State Capitol, Richmond, Virginia
1785-1789.

Ex. Thomas Jefferson
Monticello
Near Charlottesville, Virginia

Ex. Thomas Jefferson
The Rotunda, University of Virginia
Charlottesville, Virginia
1822-1826

Benjamin Henry Latrobe
Derived from Roman and Greek prototypes and theory.
Austere simplicity, severity of plane, edge, corner, and cubic form, and a poetry of geometry, precision, and proportional relatiohships.

Corncob Capital and Tobacco Leaf Capital, designed by Benjamin Henry Latrobe for the US Capitol, Washington DC, c. 1815

For all of Latrobe’s devotion to the artistry of the ancient Greeks, he kept in mind that America was his patron.
Americanized his capitals in the classical mode: in the vestibule of the Senate wing, and for the Senate rotunda the tobacco leaf is substituted for the acanthus in the capitals and corncob capitals, with cornstalks for the fluting.

An important canon of the neoclassical creed demanded the modernization of classical forms, rather than a slavish imitation of them. In subscribing to this principle, Latrobe continually infused new life into an ancient architectural vocabulary.

US Capitol,Thornton-Latrobe-Bulfinch, 1793 to 1830
Lying at the center of the Capitol, the Rotunda is a circular room, 96 feet in diameter and 180 feet in height. Although the original Architect of the Capitol, Dr. William Thornton first envisioned the design, construction of the Rotunda did not begin until 1818. The Capitol is the oldest federal building in Washington and began the classical revival theme of the city. Modelled on neo-classicism, the Rotunda was meant to recreate the Pantheon, an ancient domed Roman temple. The curved sandstone walls are divided by fluted Doric pilasters. Wreaths of olive branches line the frieze above.
The current dome was a late addition to the Capitol. The Capitol's original dome was finished in 1824. However, after additions to the wings of the building it became disproportional. This was a concern, but it was the fire hazard it posed that made a new dome necessary. The dome is made of cast-iron and masonry. It features columns, a peristyle, pilasters, brackets, and windows crowned by a statue.
The statue, Freedom, which sits atop the dome is 3 feet taller than originally planned. As a result, the height of the dome was lowered and the design was altered to use a double domed technique. The revisions lowered the height of the dome from 300 feet to 287 feet. The Statue of Freedom is 19 feet and 6 inches tall.
A Scottish physician, Dr. William Thornton, won the competition. George Washington laid the building's cornerstone in 1793. Congress occupied the building in 1800 even though it was not yet completed. Construction progressed slowly as the sandstone used had to be shipped from a distant quarry to the job site. Funding was inadequate and workers did not enjoy laboring in what was then the wilderness of Washington. Three different architects, Stephen H. Hallet, George Hadfield , and James Hoban, were employed to oversee the construction.
In 1803, Congress allocated more funds to resume construction. Benjamin Henry Latrobe was appointed architect. Latrobe modified the original plan and made adjustments to improve the quality and rate of construction. Work on the building began progressing more quickly, but soon stalled when funding was diverted to prepararions for an upcoming war with Great Britain.
In the War of 1812, the Capitol was set on fire by British troops. a large rainstorm prevented it's destruction. Latrobe was rehired to complete the restoration in 1815. He took advantage of the oppurtunity to furthe amend the design and introduced new materials, such as marble found near the Potomac. Latrobe was later forced to resign because of delays and cost overruns. In 1818, Charles Bulfinch, was appointed Architect of the Capitol. He finished construction on the House, Senate, and Supreme Court chambers by 1819 and completed the last part of the building in 1826.

American Neoclassical Sculpture

Horatio Greenough (1805-1852)
George Washington
1832-1841
marble
12' height
National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution

Commissioned by Congress in 1832.
James Fenimore Cooper--recommended Greenough
This work was intended for the Capitol Rotunda.
This was the first time an American had received a commission from his own government for a large, important piece of sculpture.

Greenough was America's first famous sculptor
From prominent Boston family. Went to Harvard and at about 20 went to Rome to experience the ancient and modern classics.

Washington was completed and delivered in 1841.
Unfortunately by this time, the enthusiasm for Neoclassical sculpture in the US had passed and the sculpture was poorly received.
One congressman said it should be thrown into the Potomac River "to hide it from the world."

The lost statue of Zeus was the inspiration for this monumental sculpture—by Pheidias, the 5th century BCE sculptor whose colossal ivory and gold Zeus which one sat in the god's Doric temple at Olympia in Greece.
Zeus was one, if not he most famous classical statue in antiquity.

Greenough wanted to endow Washington with the nobility, grandeur, virtue of the greatest of the ancients.

Typical Neoclassical effort to aggrandize and immortalize Washington.
To clarify his significance for later generations.
Greenough posed the great founder as the most powerful Olympian god.

He also used Houdon's bust of Washington as the model for the head.
With rhetorical gestures, Washington offers us a sword and points upward in a declaratory manner--much like David's determined Socrates.
Seated in Greek chair [throne-like]
Wear Greek sandals.
Wear garment unknown to Americans
Giving up Greek sword with left hand.
Points upward, heavenward with right hand—in the manner of Raphael’s Plato in the School of Athens.

Most 19th century Americans would not have know Greenough's source(s).
And without this reference, the statue seemed rather ridiculous.
They were not familiar with neo-classical criteria for the work

The abrupt juxtaposition of Washington's portrait set on a idealized seminude body led to a disappointed reaction from the statue's patrons and the public.

Didn't like godlike status of a father figure familiar to all.
They felt their beloved George Washington did not need to be represented as anything or anybody but himself.

The sculpture was ridiculed unceasingly.
Greenough blamed the harsh interior light of the Rotunda of the US Capitol for the displeasure where was placed in the center.
Finally the statue moved outdoors to the Capitol grounds. There it was even less appreciated.
There for decades exposed to weather and began to deteriorate.
Then went to Smithsonian's National Museum of American History.

Good example of how style and attitude can change--important feature of the modern world.

Think about the statue--impressive monumental scale
Commanding composition
Continues to convey the heroic and even godlike characteristics often ascribed to Washington during the period of the early American republic.

Compare with other Washingtons.

Ex. Jean-Antoine Houdon
George Washington
1789-1796/Neoclassical
Marble
Life-size
State capitol, Richmond, Virginia

During the French Revolution, Houdon produced few portraits of leading personalities of the new era.

He was in sympathy with the goals of the Revolution--at least during its early, moderate phase.
But not politically active.

Remember how David assumed dictatorial powers over the artistic projects of the Revolution --well he strongly disliked Houdon.

Houdon found himself --relegated to the sidelines and also suspected at one time during the Terror..
In 1795, he was suddenly evicted from his studio and had to sell part of its contents to stay afloat.
Earlier he had met Benjamin Franklin in 1789 and John Paul Jones. Did numerous busts of both.

When the Virginia legislature wanted to commission a statue of Washington--they contacted both Thomas Jefferson and Franklin who were in Paris at the time-in early 1780s.

They recommended Houdon as the best sculptor in the world.
He came to American to model Washington directly.

In 1785 he spent two weeks at Mount Vernon as Washington's guest.
Took measurements.
Make casts of his shoulders and hands.
And modeled a bust from life--Washington would not let him make a cast of
his face.

From 1786-1788, Washington held no public office; he was simply a retired general, a gentleman farmer.
One of the most famous of Houdon's works.

Wears a uniform.
Right hand rests on a cane.
Left hand rest on the sword [of war] that was no longer needed in peacetime.
But it is suspended in a bundle of 13 rods, the Roman fasces [a bundle of 13 rods tied together with an axe face, used in Roman times as a symbol of authority]: symbolize the union of the original 13 colonies.
Washington grasps the bundle with his left hand.
Behind is feet is a plow--a symbol of peace.

Serene expression and relaxed contrapposto pose derived from sculpted images of classical athletes.

These attributes, with their classical allusions, blend easily with the contemporary dress and the contrapposto stance.
Hardly aware of its antique origin.

Impressive image of Washington.
Also a meticulous record of his physical appearance--in the framework of personality of the Enlightenment.

This is how Americans visualized the Father of His Country.

[Greenough did much to establish sculpture of a high standard in America…But it would be for others to create works that struck a responsive chord in popular taste.]

HIRAM POWERS (1805-1873) accomplished this very thing in both his portraits and his ideal pieces.
Powers born in Vermont.
Was a mechanic and maker of gadgets.
Went to Cincinnati where he first started modeling in the 1820s.

He was so good, that a prominent local patron, Nicholas Longworth, offered to send Powers to Italy to study.

Before he went to Italy, Powers spent 3 years in Washington, DC, creating busts of political figures.

Ex.
Hiram Powers
Andrew Jackson
1835
Marble
34 in high
Metropolitan Museum of Art, NYC

Extraordinary portrait of Andrew Jackson
"Old Hickory"
He posed several times for Powers in the White House.
Supposed he told Powers "Make me as I am, Mr. Powers, and be true to nature always…I have no desire to look young when I feel old."

Jackson's beliefs disclose a pragmatic American's respect for realism and straightforward truth.
Expressed more of the aesthetic preferences of his countrymen than he probably realized.

Powers was capable of capturing every line and wrinkle in the leathery old face.

For justification of such a naturalistic style, there was always the example of ancient Roman portraiture, for example the veristic sculpture of the Old Roman /Patrician.

The classical allusion was completed by terminating the bust in a togal-ike drapery about the shoulders.

The bust was modeled in clay, and then cast in plaster, but soon after Powers got to Italy he began translating it into marble.

In 1837, Powers settled in Florence, where he spent the rest of his life.

Before long, his studio was on the list of places visited by tourists from many countries.

It was an ideal statue of a nude female figure that brought Powers international fame-the much celebrated

Hiram Powers (1805-1873)
The Greek Slave
1843
marble
5’ 51/2”
Yale

Settled permanently in Florence in 1837
Neoclassical in form—like Greek statue
But Romantic in subject matter.
Support the Greeks fight for Independence against the Turks in the 1820s had captured had won the hearts of Europeans and Americans.

Think of Delacroix’s Massacre at Chios

Powers plays to those sympathies.
A beautiful Greek maiden;
This Greek captive has been put up for sale on the slave block in the Turkish market.
She is represented at this moment--stripped of her clothing and forced to endure the lascivious stares of lewd men.

Her wrists chained.
She modestly turns her head to avoid their lustful gaze.

She is also identified as a Christian--a cross hangs on the post beside her.
Her faith protects her and gives her strength in this time of woe.

In the Victorian era--some explanation/justification for nudity:
Powers issued an explanatory pamphlet, lest Victorian sensibilities object to the nudity, stating that it was "not her person but her spirit that stands exposed."

The sculptor convinced the public that this work of the Greek Slave was a demonstration of Christian virtue over heathen lust.

Even ministers advised their congregations to go see the Greek Slave to learn from the lesson of moral strength and faith that it offered.

The Greek Slave was the first nude sculpted by an American artist. First exhibited privately in London in 1845, the sculpture subsequently came to America where it was banned in Boston. However, it was very popular with the New York public who stood in long lines and paid 25 cents to view the sculpture. It was also exhibited in the American section of the first World Exposition in London's Crystal Palace in 1851. Powers created seven versions in his workshop in Florence; the statue was in such demand that he was able to charge the then unheard-of-price of $4,000 for each of its seven replicas. Orders for full-size copies poured in patrons from several nations. This sculpture also had mass popular appeal as it was reproduced in miniatures in plaster, marble and china, which decorated many American mantels.

Viewers recognized a dim association with the bathing goddess--Aphrodite of Knidos by Praxiteles of 4th century BCE--late classical Greek art.

Viewers marveled at the virtuosity of the marble links of chains
And the details of the tassels on the robes.

First nude by an American artist.
Banned in Boston.

Suppose to represent the spirit, not a particular woman.
Extremely popular sculpture. Won the hearts of Americans.
People paid to see this in NY and later in London.
Reproduced in various forms-miniature, china, etc.