Honors World History

Unit 7 – The Foundations of Christian Society in Western Europe and Western Europe During the High Middle Ages/States and Societies Of Sub-Saharan Africa and Worlds Apart: The Americas and Oceania.

I. The Foundations of Christian Society in Western Europe

The Quest For Political Order

The period from 500-1500 C.E. in western Europe is known as the “middle ages.”

The years between 500-1000 C.E. are called the medieval period.

Agricultural economy.

Decentralized political order.

Roman Catholic church emerged as the dominant source of cultural authority.

After the fall of the Roman empire in the west in 476 C.E., Germanic peoples gradually displaced Roman authority and institutions.

Visigoths conquered Spain.

Ostrogoths and Lombards dominated Italy.

Burgundians settled in southern and eastern Gaul.

Angles and Saxons in Britain.

Franks in northern and western Gaul.

Out of all these Germanic groups, the Franks emerged as the dominant military and political power in western Europe.

Beginning in the 5th century C.E. under the rule of Clovis and continuing through the 9th century under Charlemagne, the Franks used their religious ties with the Roman Catholic church to build and secure their authority.

Carolingian Empire.

Charlemagne, in particular, worked to reestablish centralized rule throughout much of western Europe.

Extremely intelligent.

Wise to human motivations.

Charlemagne used his military, judicial, and intellectual powers to build a centralized empire and was granted the title of Roman Emperor on Christmas Day in 800 C.E.

After Charlemagne’s death, internal disunity and external invasions (Vikings and Magyars) brought the Carolingian empire to an end.

Charlemagne’s sons and grandsons dismembered his empire in less than 30 years.

In 843 C.E., the heirs of Charlemagne signed the Treaty of Verdun.

Divided the empire into 3 kingdoms.

Result:

Carolingian kings lost power and central authority broke down.

The lack of strong rulers led to a new system of governing and landholding called feudalism.

The invasions of the Muslims from the Mediterranean, the Magyars from Hungary, and the Vikings from northern Europe completed the destruction of centralized rule in western Europe.

The Vikings, Norse mariners who mounted invasions all along the European coastlines from the 9th through 11th centuries, were motivated by:

Population increase in Scandinavia.

Conversion to Christianity.

Using shallow draft boats and a detailed knowledge of tides and locations of settlements, the Vikings raided coastal and inland sites.

Using rivers as highways for rapid and unexpected assaults on

Monasteries.

Villages.

Cities in northern and southern Europe.

In England, smaller kingdoms established by the Angles and the Saxons were led by King Alfred to conquer Danish kingdoms on the north of the island.

They then built fortresses and a navy to withstand Viking invasions, thus laying the foundation for a future nation of England.

In Germany, King Otto of Saxony led the fight against the Magyar invasion.

Formed the basis for a German identity.

Earned the title of Holy Roman Emperor.

France devolved into a region of small principalities run by counts and other subordinates of the decaying Carolingian rulers.

The Vikings even established their own settlements in northern France.

The end of the invasions and the establishment of a stable, decentralized political order laid the foundation for social, economic, and cultural development in western Europe.

Early Medieval Society

Feudalism is the term traditionally used to describe the political and social order of medieval Europe.

Today, it is considered more accurate to describe it as a range of ways to maintain order.

term that has fallen out of favor among historians.

After Charlemagne’s death, European nobles built a system to protect their lands and maintain order in a decentralized society.

They built military and political relationships with other prominent individuals within their territories.

As time went on, these relationships between lords and retainers were formalized, often with church approval.

Increasingly complex.

Lands and titles became hereditary.

The governing elite handled the business, political, and legal affairs in western Europe, it was the people who cultivated the land to produce an agricultural surplus who made this complex feudal system possible.

Serfs, not fully free nor fully slave, cultivated land owned by the lords and their retainers in exchange for protection and small plots of land to cultivate.

Serfs usually had the right to work land and pass it along to their offspring so long as they fulfilled their obligations to the landlords.

Obligations included:

Working the lords’ land 3 days a week.

Planting and harvesting.

Returning a portion of the bounty from their own crops.

Weaving.

Milling.

Building.

Sewing.

Brewing.

To suit such needs, the manor developed as the principal form of agricultural organization in western Europe.

The manor included:

The land.

Crops.

Animals.

Tools.

Serfs necessary to produce the agricultural surplus which kept the system functioning.

The lord acted as the government, providing justice and limited services for his subjects.

Over time, the manors came to be largely self-sufficient communities and developed impressive craft skills.

Feudalism was a social order, and the manor system was the economic arrangement that supported it.

Knights were given land by a lord in return for military service when demanded by the King.

They also had to protect the lord and his family, as well as the Manor, from attack.

The knights kept as much of the land as they wished for their own personal use and distributed the rest to the serfs.

Although not as rich as the lords, knights were quite wealthy.

Knight’s training:

Sons of nobles began training for knighthood at an early age.

At age 7, a boy was sent off to a castle of another lord.

As a page, he waited on his hosts and began to practice fighting skills.

At age 14, the page reached the rank of squire.

A squire acted as a servant to a knight.

At age 21, a squire became a full-fledged knight.

Tournaments – mock battles.

Code of Chivalry:

Demanded that knight fight bravely in defense of 3 masters.

Earthly feudal lord.

Heavenly lord.

Chosen lady.

The ideal knight was loyal, brave, ad courteous.

The chivalrous knight also protected the weak and the poor.

New agricultural inventions:

Moldboard plow.

Watermills.

Horse collar.

Results:

Allowed farmers to put more arable land to use.

Experiment with new crops.

Crop rotation systems.

Though there was sufficient agricultural surplus to support life on the manor and small local communities, there was not enough surplus to support large urban centers as in Roman times.

By 1000 C.E., new crops such as

Hard durum rice.           Spinach.                Eggplants.             Lemons.                Oranges.                               Melons.

In the regions of the North sea and the Baltic Sea, maritime trade continued to grow.

The Norsemen, descendents of earlier Viking invaders, established ports from Russia to Ireland.

These ports linked Europe with the borders of the Islamic world.

Muslims from the Abbasid empire traded silver for European honey, fish, and furs.

This silver was the principal source of minted coins in early medieval Europe.

The Formation of Christian Europe

Though Christian monasticism began in Egypt, in Europe it increasingly became a way for devout individuals to pursue a life of holiness rather than worldly success.

At first, early Christian monasteries developed their own rules but under guidance from St. Benedict of Nursia and his Rule, the goals of poverty, chastity, and obedience became prime virtues for monks.

Religious sisters led by St. Scholastica.

Such discipline brought converts and newfound wealth to the monasteries.

Monasteries helped to bring order to the countryside.

Expanded agricultural production.

Monasteries also provided:

Hospitality for travelers.

Orphanages.

Medical care and nursing.

Education.

Spread Christianity.

II. Honors World History

Western Europe During the High Middle Ages

The Establishment of Regional States

While German princes established the confederation of states known as the Holy Roman Empire, western monarchs consolidated power over France and England.

On the Iberian Peninsula, there are five regional kingdoms and the Italian cities work towards independence from regional authority.

These states frequently clashed with one another but were very effective at organizing their own territories.

However, there was enormous tension between the succeeding emperors and popes as the emperors sought to control the Catholic church.

Popes attempted to exert their own authority over all monarchs.

The Holy Roman Empire:

Formed by German princes as a Christian revival of the earlier Roman empire.

Faced stiff resistance from the popes and the princes of other European lands.

Conflict with the papacy prevented emperors from building a strong and dynamic state.

Main issue: selection of church officials.

Neither the popes nor the emperors were strong enough to dominate the other.

During the Investiture Contest Controversy, clashes between church and state came to a head when Pop Gregory VII excommunicated Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV for attempting to name the bishops in his own region.

Henry IV backed down by pleading to the Pope barefoot in the snow and the Catholic church maintained its strong authority over Europe.

German princes took the opportunity to rebel against Henry.

The successors of Gregory and Henry continued to fight over lay investiture until 1122.

Concordat of Worms:

Compromise.

Church alone could appoint an official, but the emperor could veto the appointment.

Voltaire, the 18th century French writer, once quipped that the Holy Roman Empire was “neither holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire.”

In reality, it was a regional state ruling Germany.

Frederick Barbarossa (I).

Sought to absorb Lombardy in north Italy.

Papal coalition forced Barbarossa to relinquish his rights in Lombardy.

Battle of Legnano.

Both the French and English consolidated their feudal estates into the centralized governments of French kings.

In France, Hugh Capet formed a strong monarchy while the English were defeated by a Norman duke from across the English Channel.

Capetian France:

Hugh Capet founded dynasty from 987, lasted three centuries.

Started in Paris.

Descendants gradually expanded.

The Normans were descendents of Vikings in Normandy, France.

William the Conqueror defeated the Anglo-Saxon King of England in 1066. (Battle of Hastings)

The Normans reorganized English government and maintained a strong central authority.

Introduced Norman style of political administration to England.

Tightly centralized state.

Controlled all property.

All authority stemmed from the dukes.

Limited the rights of their retainers to grant land to others.

While both the Capetians and Normans faced internal challenges to their power, successive generations of French and English kings continued to fight each other as well.

During this period, Italy was decentralized under a mixture of Catholic states, city-states, and principalities.

While the popes influenced most Italian states, they ruled central Italy as the Papal State.

However, a Italian cities like Florence, Bologna, Genoa, Milan, and Venice grew prosperous from trade, they began to dominate the northern region with their own governments and armies.

In the south, the powerful kingdom of Naples was formed out of the former Byzantine and Muslim territories.

At the beginning of this period, the Iberian peninsula was split between a small northern Catholic region and the predominant Muslim states in the south.

By the thirteenth century, Christian armies had pressed south and conquered the regions that became Castile, Aragon, and Portugal.

Only Granada remained Muslim.

Economic Growth and Social Development

In the middle of all the political warfare, Europe experienced notable growth in trade which changed the social hierarchy.

They also began to understand the importance of field rotation and animal fertilizer.

In addition to this, they experimented with new crops such as legumes and vegetables.

The Europeans publicized their findings of agricultural improvements in books and pamphlets in vernacular European languages.

All of these improvements led to significant population growth each century between 1000 C.E. and 1300 C.E..

With the increase in trade and economic activity, peasants made their way to towns.

Roman cities like London, Paris, and Toledo became large regional centers of trade while new towns were founded at advantageous spots.

Italy and Flanders in present-day Belgium became important centers of woolen textiles.

But Italian cities also prospered mightily from the increased Mediterranean trade.

Venetian and Genoese merchants established themselves in port cities.

Access to Asian markets.

In northern Europe, the port cities of the Baltic and North Sea formed a trade network known as the Hanseatic League.

The goods shipped by these merchants were traded in large markets along the Danube and Rhine rivers

Economic changes:

Banking and credit.

Partnerships.

Social Change:

Three estates – social classes of medieval Europe.

“those who prayed, those who fought, and those who labored”

Code of Chivalry:

Governed manners and actions.

Calmed the behavior of many nobles considerably.

The code appealed to elite women who promoted its ideal of respect for women and proper behavior.

Troubadours – traveled between castles.

Sang refined love songs.

Made up poems based on the sophisticated traditions of Muslim Spain.

Most important patron:

Eleanor of Aquitaine.

The craftsmen in cities joined together in guilds to protect prices and establish uniform standards of production.

Guilds also served the social function of providing support and friendship to its members.

The guilds served as a sort of social safety net in hard times when a guild member died or became disabled.

The status of women grew with increased urbanization.

Women became professional:

Bankers.         Merchants.           Butchers.              Brewers.

Dominated the production of clothing.

Female guilds:

In13th-century Paris, there were six all-female guilds that looked after their interests.

European Christianity During the High Middle Ages

Formal curricula included the study of Latin, the Bible, and Christian theologians.

Liberal arts.

Eventually, universities organized by students and teachers in Bologna, Paris, and Salerno offered studies in medicine, law, and theology.

Famous scholastic Catholic theologian – Saint Thomas Aquinas.

Wrote books fusing Christianity with the Greek philosophy of Aristotle.

St. Thomas viewed Christianity and Aristotle as complementary authorities.

Aristotle provided human reason, Christianity explained the world and human life as the results of a divine plan.

For example, the existence of God did not depend exclusively on an individual’s faith.

Scholastic theology represented the harmonization of Aristotle with Christianity.

Popular religion.

Sacraments – holy rituals that bring spiritual blessings

Church recognized seven sacraments.

The most popular was the Eucharist – priests offered a ritual meal commemorating Jesus’ last meal with his disciples.

Veneration of saints:

very much like Buddhists' devotion to Bodhisattvas.

Mahayana Buddhism regards the Bodhisattva as a person who already has a considerable degree of enlightenment and seeks to use their wisdom to help other human beings to become liberated themselves.

Popular amongst the common people and lower class.

By far the most popular saint was the mother of Jesus, the Virgin Mary.

Pilgrimages.

Travel industry and guidebooks.

Pilgrimages:

Rome – spiritual center of western Christian society; relics of St. Peter and St. Paul.

Compostela, Spain – remote corner of northwestern Spain; relics of St. James.

Jerusalem – devoted pilgrims.

Reform movements:

Dominicans and Franciscans were urban-based mendicant orders (member of an order of friars forbidden to own property in common, who work or beg for their living).

Organized movements to champion spiritual over materialistic values.

Popular heresy:

Protested the increasing materialism of European society.

The Waldensians:

Advocated modest and simple lives.

Asserted the right to administer sacraments.

Cathars (Albigensians):

Adopted the teachings of an eastern Europe group, the Bogomils.

Advocated pure, spiritual existence.

World was a battle between good and evil.

To attain spiritual perfection, they proposed renouncing wealth and marriage.

The Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229) was a 20-year military campaign initiated by the Roman Catholic Church to eliminate the Cathar heresy in southern France.

 

The Medieval Expansion of Europe

Vikings:

Expanded westward to the islands of the north Atlantic.

Occupied Iceland and Greenland around 1000 C.E.

Leif Ericson established a short-lived community called Vinland (Newfoundland) in eastern Canada.

Teutonic Knights:

Group of fervent Christian soldiers.

Conquered the Baltic regions of Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia.

By the 14th century, the Roman Catholic church was well-established in all northern regions of Europe.

As European interest in the Mediterranean increased, they confronted the Muslim states of Sicily and Granada.

Reconquista- Christian armies taking back the Muslim controlled regions. (Spain and Sicily)

The Crusades.

Pope Urban II called Christian knights to take up arms and seize the Holy Land, 1095.

The first Crusade:

French and Norman nobles organized military expedition, 1096.

Jerusalem fell to the crusaders, 1099; Muslims recaptured, 1187.

Later crusades:

By the mid-thirteenth century, five major crusades had been launched.

The fourth crusade (1202-1204) conquered Constantinople.

The crusades failed to take over Palestine from the Muslims.

Consequences of the crusades:

Crusaders established some states in Palestine and Syria.

Encouraged trade with Muslims.

Demands for luxury goods increased.

Muslim ideas filter to Europe:

Aristotle, science, astronomy, numerals, paper.

States and Societies of Sub-Saharan Africa and Worlds Apart: The Americas and Oceania – Chapters 19 and 21 – Pages 483-505 and Pages 539-562.

Effects of Early African Migrations

Agriculture and population Growth:

500 B.C.E. – Cultivation of bananas resulted in the expansion of arable land and population increase.

African Political Organization:

Kin-Based societies - Characteristics shared by members of a group may include interests, values, ethnic or social background, and kinship ties.

Though kin-based societies survived in much of sub-Saharan Africa until the mid- 19th century, after the first millennium regional states and kingdoms became increasingly prominent.

By 1000 C.E., African migration slowed and Bantu societies governed themselves mostly through family and kinship groups rather than relying on elaborate bureaucracies.

Male heads of families participated in a village’s ruling council.

The head of the most prominent family served as chief and represented the settlement as it dealt with neighboring settlements.

A group of villages, based on ethnic loyalties, made up a district, but there usually was no head or chief of a district.

Village chiefs resolved district issues.

The terms stateless societies or segmentary societies are often used to refer to this type of social organization.

After 1000 C.E. though, these kin-based societies faced difficult challenges as population growth strained land resources.

The west African kingdoms of Ife and Benin developed as complex city-states during this time.

Ensuing conflicts encouraged Bantu communities to formally organize first their military and then their governments.

Near modern-day Republic of the Congo and Angola, the Kingdom of Kongo emerged as the most tightly centralized Bantu kingdom and as a prosperous trading nation transporting copper, raffia cloth, and nzimbu shells from the Atlantic Ocean.

Its central government was based on a king and officials who administered the nation’s judicial, political, and military affairs while provincial governors supervised district rulers who oversaw the local village rulers.

This organization effectively ruled for nearly four hundred years, until the arrival of the Portuguese slave traders.

Islamic Kingdoms and Empires

Merchants brought Islam to sub-Saharan Africa over land along the camel routes to west Africa and across the sea lanes to east Africa.

Islam would profoundly influence religious, cultural, political, social, and economic development throughout the continent.

Though the Sahara desert had never been an absolute barrier to trade and communication, only a few nomadic peoples and a handful of merchants regularly crossed it.

The introduction of the camel from Asia and the development of a useful saddle in the 7th century B.C.E, along with the conquest of north Africa by the Arabs in the 8th and 9th centuries C.E., encouraged the development of trade across the Sahara.

The kingdom of Ghana developed as a regional state during the fourth and fifth centuries C.E.

By the late eighth century when the Muslim merchants arrived, Ghana had developed as a market for copper, ironware, cotton textiles, salt, grain, and carnelian beads.

After the Muslim merchants came trade and traffic across the desert increased dramatically as west Africa became the center for trade in gold, in high demand as a result of surging trade throughout the eastern hemisphere.

Through her capital city, Koumbi-Sahel, Ghana controlled the trade and taxes on gold which her kings procured from the river regions of Gambia, Niger, and Senegal.

Ghana’s kings used that wealth to enrich and strengthen their realms.

Merchants in Ghana also traded ivory and slaves for horses and salt, which was especially important for survival in the tropics.

Ghanaian kings used these taxes to finance large armies to protect their sources of gold, to maintain order throughout the kingdom, and to defend Ghana from nomadic invasions across the Sahara.

By about the 10th century, the kings of Ghana converted to Islam which further improved relations with Muslim desert nomads, and with north African merchants and rulers.

The Ghanaian kings did not impose Islam on their subjects and even maintained some elements from their traditional religious practices.

Those Ghanaians involved in trade frequently adopted Islam as well.

Ghana collapsed under perpetual attack from northern nomadic raiders.

At the same time, the kingdom of Mali emerged, lead by the lion prince, Sundiata, who reigned from 1230 to 1255.

Through acts of legendary bravery, he used his dominant cavalry to secure his kingdom which included ancient Ghana as well as the regions of Niger,  Senegal, Mauritania, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, and Sierra Leone.

Mali benefited immensely from the trans-Saharan trade.

It built a huge capital city at Niana as well as market cities like Timbuktu, GAo, and Jenne.

Sundiata’s nephew, Mansa Musa, ruled Mali at its high point.

His pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324-1325 is legendary in its size and wealth and in its effect on the spread of Islam throughout his realm.

He returned to west Africa an even more devout believer, establishing mosques and schools throughout Mali.

Mali was overrun by the Songhai empire in fifteenth century, but the tradition of centralized government and the impact of Islam would survive.

Just as the sub-Saharan trade helped to build empires in the west, the wealth generated by the Indian Ocean trade financed the coastal city-states and interior kingdoms of east Africa.

The 10th century C.E. that Islamic merchants began regular, sustained interaction with the indigenous Bantu people in eastern African.

These coastal dwellers, at first largely hunters and gatherers, formed the basis of the new Swahili culture.

Swahili, an Arabic word meaning “coasters,” refers to the people who lived along the east African coast from Mogadishu to Sofala.

Over time, the Swahili developed a unique language and culture which mixed Bantu and Arabic traditions.

By the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the Swahili were regularly trading gold, slaves, ivory, and other exotic goods from the African interior for pottery, glass, and textiles brought to Africa from Persia, India, and China by Muslim maritime merchants.

This trading economy was based in cities lining the east African coast: Mogadishu, Lamu, Malindi, Mombasa, Zanzibar, Kilwa, Mozambique, and Sofala.

Each city-state was governed by a powerful king.

The tangible wealth of these cities was substantial as they boasted multiple-storied houses made of these cities.

Travelers like Ibn Battuta remarked on the vast material wealth he saw in the city and on the level of scholarship he appreciated in her people.

Zimbabwe was a central African kingdom which also was influenced by the wealth from east African trade.

The term actually simply refers to the dwelling of a chief.

In the fifth and sixth centuries C.E. there were many of these wooden residences in central east Africa.

Islamic Kingdoms and EmpiresBy the early thirteenth century, a magnificent stone complex was built near Nyanda in modern Zimbabwe, indicating an increasingly wealthy, complex, highly organized society.

The impressive stone enclosures were home to more than 18,000 people by the late fifteenth century as the kingdom’s influence stretched deep into south-central Africa.

From these great structures of towers and palaces, kings controlled and taxed trade between the interior and the coast and organized the flow of gold, slaves, and local products.

As in west Africa, wealthy merchants converted to Islam, though they frequently maintained their indigenous traditions as a means of maintaining their social leadership positions.

The conversion of these cultural elites enhanced their political power as they gained additional legitimacy and recognition from Islamic states in Asia.

African Society and Cultural Development

The diversity of African society by the eleventh century C.E. makes generalities difficult.

There are some social forms and cultural patterns which appear widely, however.

The societies in kingdoms, empires, and city-states like Kongo, Mali, and Kilwa resemble the social structures in the settled, agricultural lands of Eurasia.

In the smaller states and kin-based societies, however, kinship, sex and gender expectations, and age groupings determined social position.

The importance of the extended family and the lack of a concept of land as private property served as foundations of social and economic organization in kin-based societies.

People identified first as a member of a family.

Sex and gender also had a major influence on social roles.

Workers like tanners or blacksmiths were almost always men while women in those families might work as potters.

Heavy labor was considered man’s work and women handled most domestic chores and took primary responsibility for raising children.

Both men and women participated in agriculture.

Public authority was usually a man’s realm although some women did rise to positions of power.

Aristocratic women had influence in public affairs as a result of their family connections.

Women were involved in markets and participated in both local and long-distance trade.

Some African societies even allowed women to participate as soldiers.

Islam did little to alter the lives of African women.

Since the faith spread first to the upper classes, and then slowly to other classes, most African women retained their traditional gender roles, living and working openly and unveiled.

Age grouping as a means of organizing society is a distinctive African tradition which served to establish social ties across lines of family and gender.

Members of age sets or age grades performed tasks appropriate to their development and bonded to form tight circles of friends and political allies which continued throughout a person’s life.

Slave holding and slave trading has been an African tradition since antiquity.

As in most societies, slaves came as prisoners of war, debtors, criminals, and suspected witches.

Most slaves in Africa worked as agricultural and construction laborers or as porters or miners.

Slaves were a form of personal wealth as they enabled a family to increase their agricultural production and hence their wealth.

After the ninth century, the demand for slaves increased, as did the demand for all other African “goods.”

The demand for slaves in Persia, India Southwest Asia, and the Mediterranean basin outstripped the supply available from eastern Europe, previously the main source of slaves.

Slave raiding developed to meet this demand as rulers of large-scale states and empires began to attack the less defended smaller kingdoms and kin-based societies.

The Zanj revolt, the most famous slave rebellion in Mesopotamia in the late ninth century,  demonstrates the importance of African slavery as a feature of Muslim society.

Figures estimate as many as ten million Africans may have been sold as slaves to the Islamic world from 750-1500 C.E.

This trade laid the foundation for the much larger Atlantic slave trade to develop after 1500.

Religious beliefs varied among the peoples of sub-Saharan Africa.

While most had monotheistic beliefs, those beliefs changed or were altered as the people encountered other religious traditions.

Traditional African religion was practical rather than theological in its focus and it strongly emphasized morality and ethics as essential to maintaining an orderly world.

Most people recognized a divine force, usually male, who was responsible for creating and often sustaining life.

He was generally regarded as omniscient and omnipotent.

Lesser gods, frequently associated with natural features such as rain, wind, and trees, were believed to interact freely with humans bringing good or ill.

Religious rituals, such as prayer, animal sacrifice, and other ceremonies, frequently focused on honoring the deities, spirits, or ancestor’s souls to win their favor.

Diviners were intelligent men and sometimes women who understood their communities and sought to resolve problems through consulting oracles or prescribing medicines.

Christianity and Islam, both foreign religions of salvation, were adapted by some Africans.

Christianity reached Egypt and north Africa during the first century C.E.

Alexandria became an early center of Christian thought and home to such scholars as St. Augustine of Hippo.

Christianity expanded into sub-Saharan Africa after the fourth century with the conversion of the kings of Axum in Ethiopia.

There was resurgence in the thirteenth century and retained its privileged status until 1974.

Ethiopian Christianity retained many basic elements of Christian theology and ritual, but like all foreign religions in Africa, it also included the interests of its African believers.

This syncretism can be in the construction of the Rock Churches at Lalibela, Ethiopia, during the twelfth century C.E.

Likewise, Islam reflected the interests of its local converts.

While ruling elites and merchants in sub-Saharan west and coastal east Africa certainly converted in part for the economic benefits, they also took their new faith quite seriously, building mosques and schools, and going on hajj.

Even the most devoted African converts continued to accommodate their new faith with their traditional culture in terms of dress, gender relations, and ancestor rituals.

Worlds Apart: Oceania

The Societies of Oceania

The peoples of Oceania built flourishing societies of their own, creating trade networks between hunting and gathering societies.

Australia:

Life for the aboriginal peoples of Australia changed little after they learned how to exploit the continent’s varied resources.

Despite knowledge of food cultivated in other lands, they never developed agriculture.

Instead, the relied on their land’s regional bounty and on the exchange of surplus foods as they met other mobile and nomadic people during their seasonal migration.

Trade goods, like pearly oyster shells, have been found more than 1000 miles inland, having passed from one group to another rather than being transported by a single individual.

Stone axe heads, spears, boomerangs, furs, skins, and fibers were commonly traded items from the interior.

Stone clubs, decorative trinkets, exotic plants, and highly prized iron axes indicate that goods entered Australia from New Guinea and the islands of southeast Asia.

Religious traditions among aboriginal people were local and centered on geological features and continuing supplies of plants, animals, and water.

These ideas and practices did not spread much beyond the regions inhabited by individual societies.

Pacific Island Societies:

By 1000 C.E., a surging population prompted social and political development in Pacific island societies.

Because of their proximity, mariners linked island societies in the central and western Pacific regions to develop trade networks for useful and exotic goods as well as foodstuffs like yams.

Further, trade and intermarriage between residents of island groups helped to establish political and social relationships among islanders.

Yet, because of the vast distances in the eastern Pacific Ocean, regular trade networks DID NOT emerge.

Occasional long voyages could have momentous results, as did Polynesian voyages to South America in the 5th century C.E. that introduced the sweet potato to the islands where it quickly became a prominent source of food, especially in New Zealand.

Population growth occurred as islanders built productive agricultural and fishing societies.

The cultivation of yams, sweet potatoes, bananas, and other foods and the development of technologies like Hawaiian fishponds both stimulated and responded to rapid population growth.

Dense population placed tremendous pressure on natural resources and human institutions.

Conflicts like the ones on Easter Island in the early 1500s resulted in eventual disintegration of long-lived societies.

Social classes became more stratified.

Governments became more centralized.

Restrictions on food consumption and on the wearing of particular feathers was part of this stratification of social and political powers.

Gods of war and agriculture were common throughout the Pacific Islands, though individual islands and groups had their own deities as well.

Structures known as marae were built with several terraced floors of rock or coral walls designating the boundaries of a sacred place.

In Tonga and Samoa, temples made of timber with thatched roofs were places of worship, sacrifice, and communication with the gods.

In eastern Polynesia, ceremonies took place on platforms in open-air courtyards.

In Tahiti a step pyramid was constructed for such activities.