Chapter 14
The Last Great Nomadic Challenges: From Chinggis Khan to Timur

I. Introduction
A. Mongols ended/interrupted many great postclassical empires
B. Extended world network – foundation for interaction on global scale
C. Forged mightiest war machine
D. Four khanates – sons divided
1. Ruled for 150 years
2. Last time nomadic peoples dominated sedentary peoples
E. Paradox of rule – fierce fighters vs. tolerant/peaceful leaders

II. The Mongol Empire of Chinggis Khan
A. Introduction
1. difficult to organize before Chinggis Khan
a. divisions/rivalries
b. Khan – astute political strategist/brilliant military commander
2. Nomadic world – horse culture
a. Lived on herds – meat, milk, traded hides for grain/vegetables
b. Tough little ponies
c. Children ride from early age
d. Could even sleep/eat on horse
1. Animal power/seasonal migrations
2. Movable shelters
e. Political organization
1. Like Bedouins – kin/clan based – combined in confederations when needed
2. Men dominated but women could influence tribal meetings/home
3. Leadership qualities – courage, alliance forging ability
B. The Making of a Great Warrior: The Early Career of Chinggis Khan
1. Born Temujin to tribal leader, but father poisoned
2. Imprisoned by rival clan, but escapes
a. Makes alliance with another clan
3. Reputation as warrior/military commander attracted other clan chiefs

4. 1206 at kuriltai meeting – named khagan – extreme ruler
C. Building the Mongol War Machine
1. Natural warriors
a. trained from youth to ride/hunt
b. tough, mobile, accustomed to death
c. variety of weapons – lances, hatchets, maces
1. Short bow the best – 400 yard range vs. 250 European
2. Chinggis Khan’s leadership
a. organization, discipline, unity
b. directed fighting spirit toward conquest
c. divided groups into tumens – think centurions of Rome
3. Messenger force – tightly bandages – ride all day/night
4. Military discipline – killed if flee
5. Generosity fto brave foes
6. Utilized excellent maps
7. New weapons – flaming arrows, gunpowder, siege weapons
a. Willing to adopt from conquered groups
D. Conquest: The Mongol Empire Under Chinggis Khan
1. Ruled over ½ million Mongols
2. Greatest pleasure making war – campaigns
a. fortified cities – willing to adopt weapons of other nations
1. developed siege weapons
i. rams, catapults, exploding balls
ii. bamboo rockets
b. threatened terrifying retribution – surrender or else
1. slaughtered/sold townspeople
2. buildings turned to rubble
3. forced to pay tribute
E. First Assault on the Islamic World: Conquest in China
1. Defeated Turkik ruler to the west – Muhammad Shah II
a. Leader sent back envoys with heads shaved
b. Mongols destroyed with authority
2. Battle tactic
a. Fight, cavalry runs away, followed by other army, heavy cavalry moves in
3. Defeated Muhammad Shah II and brought in tens of thousands of horsemen
F. Life Under the Mongol Imperium
1. Astute and tolerant rulers
a. Open to new ideas
b. Wanted diverse peoples to live together in peace
2. Interest in arts and learning of conquered people
3. New capital at Karakorum – wise and clever visited as envoys
a. Confucian scholars on how to rule China
b. Muslims – engineers and trade
c. Daoist holy men – elixir for immortality
4. All religions tolerated
5. Mongol script created – mostly illiterate people
6. Effects
a. Peace to much of Asia
1. Towns – handicraft production, scholarship, free expression
b. Secure trade routes
c. Force for major economic/social development
G. The Death of Chinggis Khan and the Division of the Empire
1. 180,000 warriors to conquer China
2. But…got sick and died in 1227
a. empire divided among 3 sons and Batu grandsono
b. Last bit of anger – carried back Khan’s body
1. Hunted/killed every animal/human in sight
3. Mongol successor Ogedei – third son – named grand khan
a. Not best warrior, but best diplomat

III. The Mongol Drive to the West
A. Introduction
1. Golden Horde/Tartars (people from hell) – golden tent of early khans
a. Assault on Russia side campaign
b. Main goals
1. fine tune war machine
2. get some money from booty
2. Russia divided into small kingdoms – don’t unite
a. Only successful winter invasion
1. Good for horse’s footing
2. Access over frozen rivers to enemies
3. All slaughtered or led into slavery
B. Russian in Bondage
1. 2 ½ centuries of Russia in bondage
2 Effects
a. Peasantry have to give up crops
i. Some flee to protection of ruling class – become serfs
b. Some Russian towns make profits
i. Increased trade
ii. Moscow – trade, tribute collector
1. Rulers made money and annexed other towns
3. Tribute collectors
a. Battle of Kulikova – overthrew Golden Horde
4. Impact – turning point in Russia history
a. Moscow grew
b. Orthodox church intensifies control
c. changes in Russia’s military organization
d. princes realize need to centralize control
1. Reduce limitations put on power by nobility, clergy, merch
e. Russia’s isolation from Christian lands
1. Benefit – Russia protected from invasion from Europe
2. Negative – Cut off from key transformations in w. Europe
C. Mongol Incursions and the Retreat from Europe
1. W. Europe thought Mongols were Prestor John
a. Mythical Christian monarch cut off who would one day return
2. Mongols wanted to pillage Europe, but…
a. Death of khagan Ogedei – forced leader Batu to retreat
1. Compete for leadership
b. Richer lands to plunder in Middle East
D. The Mongol Assault on the Islamic Heartland
1. 1258 – capture/destruction of Baghdad
a. 800,000 killed
b. Abbasid caliph
2. Effects
a. ended dynasty that had ruled since 8th century
b. left faithful without central authority
c. devastated focal points/trading centers of Islamic civilization
3. Eventually defeated by the Mamluk
a. Enslaved by Mongols – later defeated them
b. With cooperation with Christians

IV. The Mongol Interlude in Chinese History
A. Introduction
1. Administered very strictly
2. Mongols retained distinct culture
3. Opened China to influences from Persian lands/contacts with Europe
4. Kubliai Khan
a. Assumed title of great khan/Yuan
b. Changed name of regime to Yuan – Yuan Dynasty
c. Denied Chinese influence
1. distinction between Mongol/Chinese
2. forbade Chinese scholars from learning Mongol script
3. forbidden to marry ethnic Chinese
4. women from nomadic families accepted into harem
5. Mongol religious ceremonies retained
6. traditional tent encampment set up in capital
7. Did not embrace civil service exams
d. worked with Chinese on some issues
1. Surrounded self with Chinese advisors – Confucian, Buddhist, Daoist
2. Capital at Tatu – Beijing
3. Introduced rituals and classic music into court
e. New social structure
1. Mongols
2. Nomadic/Muslim allies
3. North Chinese
4. Ethnic Chinese/peoples from South
B. Gender Roles and the Convergence of Mongol and Chinese Culture
1. Women
a. Refused to adopt footbinding
b. Women retained property rights
c. Destroyed vision of women as dainty, to be protected
1. Rode to hunt
2. Kubilai’s daughter said had to beat wrestling
d. Chabi – wife
1. promoted Buddhist interests
2. reduced harsh treatment of Song captured
3. didn’t convert nearby farmland to pastureland
C. Mongol Tolerance and Foreign Cultural Influence
1. Curiosity/cosmopolitan tastes – opened China up
a. Brought scholars, artists, artisans
b. Muslims second social class
1. Supervised building of Chinese-style imperial city
2. Persian astronomers corrected Chinse calendars
3. Doctors added 36 volumes of Muslim medicine
2. Welcomed travelers
a. Polo family from Venice – Marco Polo
1. Marco Polo’s travel log created extreme interest in Asia
2. Inspired European efforts in navigation
D. Social Policies and Scholar-Gentry
1. Completely altered social hierarchy
a. Prevented scholar-gentry from taking positions – got rid of test
b. Bolstered position of artisans
c. Merchants also prospered
1. Mongols created war fleets/navies
2. Cities/sedentary lifestyles flourished – ironic
3. Open to different ideas
a. Traditional poetry/essay writing suffers
b. popular entertainment – dramas flourish
1. The Romance of the West Chamber
2. Actors no longer “mean people”
4. Help for peasants
a. Doesn’t turn cropland into pasture land
b. Reduces taxes
c. Plan to establish elementary education – never goes through
E. The Fall of the House of Yuan
1. Mongol aura of invincibility falters
a. Lost to military lords of Japan
b. Song loyalists raised revolts in South
c. Frustrated/unsuccessful expeditions to Java/Vietnam
2. Softening of the ruling class
a. Stop taking care of day to day work
b. Allowed corrupt Chinese/Muslims to run finances
3. Scholar-gentry encouraged revolts
4. Banditry/piracy increases – can’t guarantee safety
5. Famine hit many regions
6. Religious Sects – White Lotus Society
a. Magical powers to overthrow Mongols
7. Man from poor peasant family – Ju Yuanzhang starts Ming dynasty
F. Aftershock: The Brief Ride of Timur
1. Timur-I Lang – Timur the Lame
a. Highly cultured person
b. Ruthless conqueror – atrocities – pyramid of skulls – tens thousands
1. Spared artisans/scientists to help build capital
2. Upon death, empire falls apart
3. Last great challenge from nomads

V. Global Connections
A. Lasting changes
1. new ways of making war
a. gunpowder
2. Facilitated trade
a. unprecedented trade of foods, tools, ideas
b. brought great wealth to traders – think Venice
3. Created urge for overseas expansion
B. Greatest impact – plagues
1. Fleas on livestock
2. Rats on ships that nibbled grain
3. Economic/social impact – 50% of some regions
a. Forced adjustments/change in economic/social roles to deal with
C. Other exchanges
1. Europeans adapt products and technologies
a. Explosive powder/printing
2. After many wanted to maintain contacts
a. But…China grew more wary of outsiders
b. But…land-based travel became more difficult
1. Led to the need to focus on improving sea routes/transportation