The Ottoman Empire
Jutting out from the Middle East proper lies the peninsula known in antiquity as Asia Minor. When the Turks arrived in the 11th century, they called the land Anatolia, a word derived from the Greek word for east. Anatolia forms almost a bridge between Europe and Asia split by the tiny channel of the Bosporus where the Black Sea empties into the Sea of Marmara and thence to the Mediterranean through the Dardanelles. The modern nation of Turkey consists of Anatolia and the small area of Europe known as Thrace. This area just across the Bosporus contains the famous site of Constantinople, now Istanbul, and the city of Gallipoli. Just across the Dardanelles on the Anatolian side lies the ancient site of the city of Troy. One can hardly imagine a more symbolic “bridge” from the ancient Greek wars, to the besieged capital of Byzantium, to the modern wars that spanned all of Eurasia. Asia Minor was the stepping stone to greatness for figures as diverse as Alexander the Great, the Apostle Paul, and more to our topic, the father of modern Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.
Hittites, Lydians, Persians, Greeks, Seleucids, Romans, Byzantines, Seljuk Turks, and Mongols all recognized the geographical importance of this spot and in that order. The last great empire to claim Anatolia as their sacred center was the Ottoman Empire, named for a mythical figure said to have led their earliest conquests just as the Renaissance commenced in Italy. Because the people of Osman, or Otman, confronted Byzantium they were accorded special prestige in the Muslim world. They upheld this dynamic banner of confrontation and expansion until they were ruined by the Great War, or World War I. Victories by the Ottoman Turks began as early as 1326 in Anatolia, where they fought even against the Seljuk Turks, and then by 1354 they invaded Europe. In a great end run around the apparently impregnable Constantinople they crossed the Dardanelles and rampaged across the Balkans going so far as to conquer Alexander’s homeland, Macedonia. Their success was not only military but also commercial as they forged a trade alliance with Genoa in Italy. The Ottomans owned the bridge and they capitalized on their good fortune.
The fourth Ottoman ruler to bear the title Sultan, a man named Bayezid I, extended Ottoman control eastward to all of Anatolia. His forces then crushed European knights sent on “crusade” at Nicopolis in the Balkans in 1396, but he himself was crushed and captured by Timur the Lame, the half-Turk, half-Mongol pretender to the legacy of Genghis Khan. Bayezid was the unfortunate captive to be caged by Timur and abused along with the women of his immediate family. He committed suicide in despair. His son, Mehmed I, practiced the Ottoman tradition in succession—fratricidal war. After subduing all his brothers in 1413, he bent all his will on restoring the Ottoman state. His son was able to resume control across Anatolia and even continue expansion back into Europe. A national consciousness arose from this resurgence, and Turkish literature as well as a dynasty was born.
One of the most curious cultural exchanges of all history drove this success. As Ottoman Turks conquered Christian lands in Europe, young Christian boys were captured and raised as Muslims with strict military discipline. As the boys grew into young men they formed an elite corps of the Ottoman armies which no native-born Muslims could join until the 1600s. Known as Janissaries from the term for “new troops,” these soldiers formed a unique class with the power to build up or to tear down sultans. They formed a Muslim type of celibate fighting order like the Christian Knights Hospitaller. Many of their most promising members rose in the ranks to attain high administrative power in the Ottoman government. With their influence stabilizing the frontier, religious authorities rose up in the heart of the Ottoman Empire to the highest level of Islamic control over any Muslim state to that point in history. Caliphs and other holy men were trained academically and graded in a hierarchy in such a way as to be the first real attempt by a civilized Muslim state to use its wealth and power to establish the Holy Law of Islam as the law of the land. Ottoman Muslims were Sunni, so Sunni scholars attained governmental powers and immense status. This combination of dedicated military service and institutionalized religious devotion was the genesis of Ottoman unity and power that would last until the Janissaries sought wives, had families, and devoted themselves to their own purposes. Thus always to empires! First, though, let’s build one.
By 1451, a sultan came along who realized what the Ottomans must do to consolidate their gains into a lasting empire. Mehmed II observed the eastern and western halves of his empire to require greater unity so he set his sights, literally, on the nuisance dividing them—Constantinople. Mehmed drew his army up in 1453 outside Constantinople and planned his attack. Both sides possessed artillery and began to pummel each other, but in evidence of how primitive this new terror weapon was, the largest Byzantine cannon exploded. The Ottomans still had their largest cannon, though, a gun so big it took 60 oxen to move it. The Ottomans easily crossed the Bosporus with their fleet, but the Byzantines had placed a great chain across the mouth of the Golden Horn, the inlet of the Sea of Marmara that flanked their city. The Byzantine fleet positioned itself astride this chain and the people of Constantinople felt safe behind this line and their triple-walled fortifications. Mehmed devised a bold plan, however, to get behind the city. While a massive artillery bombardment, bolstered by his invention of long-range mortars, kept the defenders pinned down, Mehmed ordered 72 of his smallest ships slid overland around the chain and the Byzantine fleet and slipped into the Golden Horn behind enemy lines. The people of Constantinople were forced to totally readjust their defenses while Mehmed built a pontoon bridge and transferred his forces behind them. Thus, when the final assault came on May 26, 1453, their lines were dangerously thin.
While the first Ottoman forces assaulted the walls from land, Ottoman ships attempted to draw up close enough to the walls nearest them in order to erect scaling ladders. A second wave of attacks succeeded in breaching part of the defenses of Constantinople but was driven back. In a last desperate attempt Mehmed committed all of his reserve troops including the Janissaries. The Janissaries were infantrymen who carried muskets, and their slow, disciplined advance was said to terrify the defenders who watched their approach. Fifty soldiers of this third wave made it inside Constantinople and raised their banner atop the wall, but this display only served to tell the defenders where to attack. But then Constantinople suffered two great losses. The Italian soldier commanding the area of the breach was mortally wounded. Then news came that the Ottomans had come over the wall on the side of the Golden Horn and slain the last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI, who had died defending the wall. The defense of Constantinople collapsed, and Mehmed, from then on known as the Conqueror, entered the city and prayed at the Hagia Sophia. He converted this edifice, one of the most beautiful churches in Christendom, into a mosque. By the skillful use of both muskets and cannon, the Ottoman Empire earned a place in history as the Gunpowder Empire. By capturing the last vestige of Roman power, Mehmed the Conqueror unified his nation and earned the highest praise from all Muslims, or most of them.
Constantinople was hereafter known as Istanbul (from the Greek for “into the city”) and became the new capital of the Ottoman Empire. There Christian Greeks and Muslim Turks (and others) formed a new metropolis where Muslims, Christians, and Jews lived in peace. Mehmed declared himself to be the new Caesar, and even Greek scholars said, “Whoever is legally master of the capital of the empire is the emperor.” So many people migrated to live in the new capital with the new emperor that the Ottomans were forced to expand their holdings north of the Black Sea in order to acquire enough farm land with which to feed them. Now the Ottomans replaced the Italians as the masters of the East/West exchange. With this impetus the Ottomans were able to leap West beyond the Aegean Sea to the Adriatic and occupy much of the Dalmatian coast. As a result, they possessed the Silk Road. Preeminence in trade allowed the Ottomans to sever the commercial strength created between the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt and the remnants of the Mongol Empire, notably the Golden Horde. As the new seat of power, the Ottoman Empire was able to exact an alliance with their neighboring Mongol khanate against the Golden Horde as well as against the rising power of Russia.
As a natural boundary and thriving trade were stabilized with Christian Europe, Ottoman sultans turned back eastward to assert their authority over all Turks. These neighboring tribes were subdued by 1475, and Sunni Ottoman authority was enforced over more and more of Shi’a Muslims and over the mystical whirling dervishes associated with Sufism. Mehmet the Conqueror also sent news of his victories to the Mamluk sultan of Cairo addressing him as the Defender of the Islamic Holy Places (Mecca and Medina). Mehmet called himself the Defender of the Islamic Frontier, a subtle assertion of more active leadership. In the typical rivalry among sons following Mehmet’s death, his son Cem escaped to Egypt and thus strained the relationship between the Mamluks and the winning son who became the Sultan Bayezid II of the Ottoman Empire. By the 1480s efforts to maintain peaceful relations failed, and the steadily improving Ottoman armies marched on the declining Mamluk powers just as they were beginning to be harassed from behind by the Portuguese who had sailed around Africa by the early 1500s. Instead of uniting on a new front against Christians, Bayezid II decided the Mamluks were past their prime. Some Mamluks armies mutinied, and by 1516 Ottoman armies launched a full-scale invasion and killed the last Mamluk sultan. Bayezid’s son achieved the title Selim the Grim by crushing the last Mamluk army outside Cairo, Egypt in 1517. This defeat is said to mark the end of the Medieval Islamic world.
From these successes the Ottoman Empire reached its peak during the reign of Süleyman the Magnificent. The new Sultan’s armies swept deeper into Europe going so far as to lay siege to Vienna in 1529. Ottoman fleets defied the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean. The Ottoman Empire stretched west from Egypt across North Africa allowing their naval power to become a presence in the Mediterranean and even out into the Atlantic where Ottoman vessels raided the coasts of Western Europe. One Elizabethan historian called the Ottomans, “the present Terror of the World.” In 1571, however, the Ottomans lost the Battle of Lepanto, a giant naval battle on the Mediterranean Sea celebrated across Europe as a great Christian victory. A truce was reached for a time in 1606 when a Holy Roman Emperor and an Ottoman sultan met on an island in the river that marked the boundary between their lands and signed a peace treaty. Peace lasted until the Turks launched another jihad in Central Europe until a second attempt to take Vienna failed completely in 1683. Ottoman expansion was over.
European history and society were altered permanently by this East/West clash that some historians said presaged the standoff between the superpowers of the United States and the Soviet Union. Muslim populations remain in the Balkans today, and nationalistic impulses that have made “balkanization,” a term meaning cultural and political splintering, have their roots in Christian vs. Muslim clashes. Jews, displaced by the Inquisition and Reconquista in Spain, fled east to peaceful assimilation among the Ottomans. Even Martin Luther said that he and much of Europe would rather live under the rule of “honest Musselmans” rather than that of a corrupt Catholic Church. All the while shrewd merchants on both sides of the religious divide benefitted from the vast wealth in the open markets crossing the bridge from Asia to Europe. Europeans were so impressed by the efficiency and military might of the Ottomans at its height that they sought to imitate them. Süleyman the Magnificent was replaced upon his death, however, by a sultan that came to be known as Selim the Sot. The last expansive conquests notwithstanding, the Ottoman Empire went down from there. By the end of the 17th century, the resulting instability in Ottoman control of its empire became known as the problematic “Eastern question.” Two centuries later the crumbling Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in what became World War I. The Central Powers were the losing side, and the Ottoman Empire is one of four destroyed by the Great War.
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The Ottoman Empire (1299-1922)
After Muhammad’s death in 632 AD, Islam spread throughout the Arabian Peninsula and beyond. One of the largest and longest lasting dynasties to rule the Islamic world started in the 13th century (1200s AD) with Osman, a leader of a Muslim tribe in Turkey. A dynasty is a family or group that maintains power for generations. Osman started the Ottoman dynasty by defeating other Turkish tribes to become ruler of a small kingdom. Osman then rose to conquer what was left of the old Roman Empire (A.K.A the Byzantine Empire). The Turkish Ottoman Empire, whose name comes from Osman, eventually conquered most of the Middle East, North Africa, and southeast Europe. In 1453 the Ottomans captured the city of Constantinople, the capital of the eastern Roman Empire. The Ottomans renamed the city Istanbul and made it their capital. During the 15th and 16th centuries it was one of the most powerful states in the world. The Ottoman Empire lasted until the early 20th century (1900s), a span of almost 600 years.
While Ottoman Turks were Muslims, they did not impose (force) Islamic law on all non-Muslims. The Ottoman Turks generally allowed Christians, Jews, and people of other faiths to practice their beliefs in peace. In fact, one of the successes of the Ottoman Empire was the unity that it brought among its highly diverse populations. This unity may be credited in part to the laws of Islam, which stated that Muslims, Christians and Jews — who made up the vast majority of the Ottoman population — were all "People of the Book", in other words they followed a sacred text (holy book). Many Jews were invited to settle in Ottoman territory and Christians were given many rights.
One exception to this rule of religious tolerance was the group called the Janissaries. The Ottoman sultans demanded that conquered lands pay taxes to the empire. One way taxes were paid was through collecting children. Boys were collected every year from Christian lands mainly in South Central Europe. Ottoman officials took children from Christian families to be brought up as servants of the Ottoman Empire. After being taken from their families, these boys lived with Turkish farming families to learn the Ottoman language (Turkish) and religion (Islam). Many of these converted Christians eventually joined the army, becoming known as Janissaries. But those who showed special ability were able to rise to the highest levels of government within the empire.
Suleiman the Magnificent
The Janissaries were especially important to the reign of the greatest Ottoman sultan, or ruler, Suleiman. Suleiman used the Janissary military force to make his empire into the richest and most powerful empire in Europe and southwest Asia at the time. Under Suleiman’s rule, the empire reached the height of its power, a period known as the Golden Age. In addition to being a great military leader, he also oversaw the empire's greatest cultural achievements. With an interest in architecture, Suleiman made major improvements to the main Islamic cities. He also built strong fortresses to defend the places he took from the Christians. Suleiman concerned himself with the development of literature, art, and law as well. In fact, Muslim’s called him “The Lawgiver” because he published a code of laws that established a system of justice throughout the empire.
The Ottomans were fine soldiers, but had difficulty ruling. As Muslims, they were tolerant of religious differences and generally treated Jews and Christians fairly. This tolerance strengthened the empire. On the other hand, unlike the Muslim rulers of the past, the Ottoman sultans tended to fear and distrust new ideas. This proved fatal (deadly) to the empire. The Ottomans were largely passed over by the European Renaissance in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Enlightenment of the 18th century, and the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century. While the rest of the world advanced in new ideas and technologies, the Ottomans were too busy fighting and warring. Throughout their history the Ottomans were either trying to take over more land or defending the land they had. Therefore the Ottoman Empire began a slow but steady decline in the last decades of the 16th century. Few sultans after Suleiman were able to exercise real power when the need arose. The Ottoman Empire was weakening and often compared to a "sick man". As the Ottoman Empire began to decline, European colonial leaders, who had recently seized most of Africa, were eager to take over the Middle East too.
The Fall of the Ottoman Empire
Warfare led to the final collapse of the empire in the first decades of the 20th century. In 1912–13 the empire lost almost all its remaining European territory in two military conflicts known as the Balkan Wars. Then in World War I (1914–18) the empire fought with Germany on the losing side. This defeat forced the Ottoman leaders to give up much of the rest of their territory. Unfortunately for the Ottoman Turks, the winning powers of World War I were eager to claim their influence in the Middle East and North Africa at the end of the war. The winning European powers hoped to sell their manufactured goods to the people of the Middle East. They also hoped to exploit (use) the natural resources of the region. Oil had not yet been discovered, but the Middle East and North Africa had many exotic spices. Britain also controlled India at that time, and they hoped to secure a safe route through the Middle East to India and other colonial lands in East Asia. Britain, France, and the United States carved up most of the Ottoman Empire and left only what we now know as the modern nation of Turkey. Outraged by this development, a group of Turks led by Mustafa Kemal formed a new government. Former Ottoman leaders fled the country. In 1923 Turkey was declared a republic with Mustafa Kemal (later known as Atatürk, or “Father of the Turks”) as its president.
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Crystal Kali Hossain
SPRING 2010
Prof. D. Friedman
The Ottoman Empire is revered as one of the most vast and successful Empires throughout history. The Empire lasted throughout long periods of time and expanded over extensive lands. With such a great territorial expansion and diverse constituency, the Ottoman Empire’s greatest challenge was unification. The wide Ottoman territory held a great number of peoples, marked by differences in race, language, religion, and customs. In order to unite these people under one Empire, the Ottomans developed a complex legal system that was comprehensive and inclusive. The Ottoman system incorporated people of all backgrounds, obtained new members of the Ottoman nationality as well as new warriors for the Ottoman Empire.
The Ottoman Empire consisted of a great body of lands that were directly administered according to a system that was exceedingly intricate but approximately uniform. The Ottoman legal system was decentralized, diverse, and dynamic to cope with the wide religious, ethnic, and cultural diversity of the population. Building on the legal traditions of preceding Islamic empires, the Ottomans developed a dynamic system of law (kanun-u Osmani), which consisted of three parts: (1) Shari’a (2) Kanun (including customary law, called örf), and (3) minority legal regimes applicable to non-Muslim millets. The study of the Ottoman public law requires the study of the Islamic Law as well as decrees issued by the Sultans . In the private sector, the Ottomans followed and adhered to Islamic law, governed by the Hanafi school of Shari’a.
The Ottoman Empire’s effective legal system was a great factor to its success. Its tri-faceted system allowed for innovation and advancement while still maintaining traditional values and customs. Under an Islamic umbrella the Ottomans have combined some principles of their old system of law, merged many traditions, created new institutions and set up principles in order to govern their vast lands. Additionally, the Ottomans retained superb relations with other nations by allowing for capitulations (treaties) with non-Muslim individuals residing within the Ottoman Empire.
Unlike traditional Islamic law, the Ottomans created a type of centralized legal system in conjunction with the de-centralized Islamic system. The centralized system was effective in supplementing, but not supplanting, the law of Shari’a. In order to rule their vast territories by fılling the voids in the fıeld of Public law, Ottoman Sultans made local and fully sui generis arrangements. Where the Shari’a lacked specifications as to certain legal issues or consequences, the Ottoman Sultan could legislate on such matters.
This legislative authority of the Sultan was presumably sanctioned by Shari`a itself to regulate matters not covered by its own principles, such as the structure of state institutions, the imposition of taxes that are not required under Shari`a, and certain punishments. The Ottoman state had a strong central administration since the days of Fatih the Conqueror and allowed for the expressions of the will of the Sultan, and the Sultan’s delegated officials, manifest as rules of Public Law (decrees, edicts, etc). Kanun legislation was supposed to be of limited duration, usually expiring when the sultan who had enacted it died or was dethroned, unless re-enacted by the new Sultan.
The great limitation upon the power of the Ottoman sultan was the Sharia, or Sacred Law of Islam, which claimed to be wholly above him and beyond his alteration. Ottoman Sultans had legislative power as long as they did not break or violate the rules of the religion. The Ottomans did not see any contradiction between Shari`a and Kanun. Although promulgated by the Sultan, the texts of Kanun themselves were generally drafted by the Sultan’s private secretary, who would be from the ulama and well-versed in Shari’a, in consultation with the sultan and other authorities.
The Law imposed by the Sultans based on their authority was called common law. Many regulations pertaining to the Ottoman State structure appeared as a consequence of the power of the Sultan to formulate common law. While imposing new rules solely based on their absolute power, the Sultans were exercising their administrations in provinces with completely different structures by imposing various decrees that met the local requirements by preserving local traditions and legal principles. Thus the Ottoman public law encompassed rules deriving from local traditions and cultures as well as principles elaborated by the legislative power of the Sultan.
The Ottoman Ruling Institution included the sultan and his family, the officers of his household, the executive officers of the government, the standing army composed of cavalry and infantry, and a large body of young men who were being educated for service in the standing army, the court, and the government.
The absolute character of the sultan’s authority was an element of great strength to the institution, but it contained also the possibility of a great danger. Although the Sultan’s power with public law was limited in many directions, it knew no limits with regard to the members and mechanisms of the Ruling Institution. “The Sultan is a scion of the Ottoman dynasty and is at the top of the ladder. He possesses charisma, a main hallmark of his leadership, and runs public affairs from the center and in person without delegating authority to anyone.” \
The Ruling Institution consisted of some component parts of ruling institution which were capable of separate existence. These bodies were known as the janissaries, or permanent infantry (kul), the permanaent cavalry known as the Spahis of the Porte (sipahis) and the hierarchy of governing officials (ulema).
Almost every member of the Ruling Institution came into it as the Sultan’s slave. Whether captured, purchased, presented or levied, the young men who entered the system were the slaves of the sultan, the personal property of a despot. They must to the end of their days go where the sultan chose to send them, obey his slightest wish, submit to disgrace as readily as to promotion, and though in the highest office of state, they must accept death by his order from the hands of their humblest fellow-slaves.
During the time of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ruling Institution had greater power and influence that the Islamic Institution. In some instances, the Sultan’s slaves were regarded as higher than his sons. It was felt that a son possessed a character that was more or less up to chance while a slave had been selected and his title was prized.
The enforcement of Islamic private law continued in the Ottoman Empire without change. The Muslim institution of Ottoman Empire included the educators, priests, jurisconsults, and judges of the empire, and all who were in training for such duties. This institution embodied and maintained the whole substance and structure of Islamic learning, religion, and law in the empire and took part in govt by applying the Sacred Law as judges assisted by jurisconsults.
The Sharia was a form of religious Consitution, which by its own provisions was incapable of amendment. The rules of the Islamic law prevailed in Ottoman social practices in the fields of Law of Persons, Real Rights, Family, Inheritance, Obligations and Commercial Law. These rules were valid only for the Muslim citizens of the Empire. Non-Muslim Ottoman citizens were subject in the field of private law to the rules of their own religions.
The principles of Shari`a followed by the Ottoman state were primarily of the Hanafi School of Islamic jurisprudence. While local judges were generally permitted to follow other schools of Islamic jurisprudence, the official use of the Hanafi School by the state made it highly influential throughout the Ottoman Empire, including areas where other schools of Islamic jurisprudence had been followed traditionally.
The Ottoman Qadi was both an Islamic judge and a civil administrator at the same time. The ruling of a judge applying Shari`a principles was generally final and binding, but a party who did not accept the decision was allowed to apply for a second hearing of the case by the court of the Sultan (Divan), as the ultimate appellate court. The courts could also endorse a ruling made by an arbiter or mediator agreed upon by the parties (sulh decree), which was then entered in the official records of the court and enforced by state officials.
The judge dealth with criminal and civil matters and also supervised the administration of religious endowments. Muslims and Non-Muslims used the courts to register all kinds of deeds and agreements, from marriage contracts to those concerning loans and real estate transactions.
The divan-i humayun, was the Imperial Council and functioned both as the Ottoman ‘Cabinet’ and as the Supreme Court of the Empire. As a Supreme Court, the Imperial Council was presided over by the grand vizier, who passed sentence in lawsuits and trials on the basis of both Shari’a (Islamic Law) and Kanun (State Law).
The courts were official institutions that operated under the authority of the central government in Istanbul, which appointed and paid all judges and generally ensured the enforcement of their judgments. This relationship between the central government and judges allowed state officials to decide the geographical and subject-matter jurisdiction of judges whom they authorized to apply Shari`a principles. Consequently, their decisions were officially accepted and backed by the coercive power of the state.
For the Europeans, their privileges in the Ottoman Empire were practically written in stone. The capitulatory corpus formed the sole legal basis for the status of foreigners in the Ottoman Empire. The capitulations codified basic arrangements that enabled foreign merchants to reside in the Ottoman Empire indefinitely without becoming subjects of the Sultan. The capitulations were granted on the condition that the beneficiaries would agree to maintain peaceful relations with the Ottoman Empire.
However, non-Muslims under the rule of Islam were subject to certain prohibitions as well.
“The dhimmis must not imitate Muslim garb, wear military attire, abuse or strike a Muslim, raise the cross in an Islamic assemblage; let pigs out of their homes into Muslim courtyards; display banners on their own holidays; bear arms on their holidays, or carry them at all, or keep them in their homes. Should they do anything of the sort, they must be punished, and the arms seized.”
All adult non-Muslim males had to pay the cizye, the poll tax, and other levies. Except for land tax, and for responsibility to Ottoman courts of justice in civil cases in which Ottoman subjects were concerned, and the other minor restrictions, foreigners were almost wholly free from Ottoman control, and had more liberty to do as they pleased than they could in their native lands. Not only did the various colonies of foreigners and the various subject nationalities have their separate rights under different systems, but individuals among them, such as ambassadors and clergymen, had special privileges and immunities.
Tax exemptions were sometimes granted to the foreign elite and determined a foreigner’s legal status. The Ottomans distinguished two legal classes: the military class that was exempt from taxes, and the common subject class that did pay taxes.
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An-Na’im, Abdullahi Ahmed. The Future of Shari’a: Empires and Islam. Emory University.
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Bozkurt, Gulnihal. Review of the Ottoman Legal System. Ankara University.
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Itzkowitz, Norman. Ottoman Empire and Islamic Legal Tradition. (1982). University of Chicago Press.
Kunt, I. Metin. The Sultan’s Servants: The Tranformation of Ottoman Provincial Government. (1983). Columbia University Press, New York.
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Van Den Boogert. The Capitulations and the Ottoman Legal System. (2005). Brill, Boston.
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