Develop an understanding of the physical, chemical, and cellular basis of life.

• Structure and Functions of Organic Molecules (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids)
• Structure and Functions of Cells, Cellular Organelles, Cell Specialization, Communication Among Cells
• Cell as a Living System, Homeostasis, Cellular Transport, Energy Use and Release in Biochemical Reactions

Structure and Function of Enzymes, Importance in Biological Systems

ORGANIC MOLECULES:
Organic compounds contain carbon and are found in all living things.

• Carbohydrates

major source of energy and include sugars and starches
made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen with a 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen
plants and animals use carbohydrates for maintaining structure within the cells

• Proteins

Nitrogen-containing compounds made up of chains of amino acids
20 amino acids can combine to form a great variety of protein molecules
can compose enzymes, hormones, antibodies, and structural components

• Lipids

water-insoluble (fats and oils)
made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen; composed of glycerol and fatty acid
provide insulation, store energy, cushion internal organs, found in biological membranes
saturated (with hydrogen, single bonds, see example à) and unsaturated (double bonds)

• Nucleic Acids

direct the instruction of proteins
genetic information an organism receives from its parents
two types: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid)

CELL ORGANELLES:

• Chloroplast – capture solar energy for photosynthesis (plant cells, some algae)
• Golgi Body – package, distribute products
• Lysosomes – digests excess products and food particles
• Mitochondria – transform energy through respiration
• Nucleus – contains DNA which controls cellular activities
• Ribosome – produce proteins
• Vacuole – store substances
• Cell (plasma) membrane – phospholipid bilayer that protects and encloses the cell; controls transport; maintains homeostasis
• Cell wall – rigid second layer that protects and encloses the cell (plant cells and some bacteria)
• Cytoplasm – fluid-like substance that contains various membrane-bound structures (organelles) that perform various functions
• Endoplasmic Reticulum – site of chemical reactions

    - ROUGH: contains ribosomes
- SMOOTH: lipid production
-  Cytoskeleton – provides internal structure
- MICROFILAMENTS: fibers
- MICROTUBULES: cylinders

CELL TYPES:

• Unicellular – organism that exists as a singular, independent cell
• Multicellular – organism that exists as specialized groups of cells; cells are organized into tissues that perform the same function; tissues form organs and organs make up an organ system
• Prokaryote – has nuclear material in the center of the cell, but is not enclosed by a nuclear membrane; no membrane-bound organelles; found in bacteria and blue-green bacteria
• Eukaryote – contain a clearly defined nucleus enclosed by a nuclear membrane and membrane-bound organelles; found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists

CELL THEORY:

• The cell is the basic unit of life.
• All organisms are composed of cells
• All cells come from pre-existing cells.

CELL SPECIALIZATION:

• cells  >>>>  tissues  >>>>  organs  >>>>  organ systems  >>>>  organism
• each cell performs a specific function for each tissue or organ
• as cells mature, they shape and contents change
• as cells become specialized they may contain organelles that are NOT common to all cells (for example:  plastids, cell wall, vacuole, centriole)
• design and shape of a cell is dictated by its function and the conditions under which it works
• multicellular organisms exhibit greater cellular specialization, such as red blood cells, nerve cells, and gland cells

CELL TRANSPORT:

• Passive Transport – movement of substances across the plasma membrane without the use of the cell’s energy (with the concentration gradient)
• DIFFUSION – movement of substances across the plasma membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
• OSMOSIS – diffusion of water across the plasma membrane from areas of high concentration to areas of lower concentration
• FACILITATED TRANSPORT – a carrier molecule embedded in the plasma membrane transports a substance across the plasma membrane following the high-to-low concentration gradient
• Active Transport – movement of substances across the plasma membrane that requires the use of the cell’s energy and carrier molecules; substances are moving from an area of low concentration to an area of higher concentration (against the concentration gradient)
• ENDOCYTOSIS – large particles are brought into the cell
• EXOCYTOSIS – large particles leave the cell
• HOMEOSTASIS – internal equilibrium; the plasma membrane regulates what enters and leaves the cell; a selectively permeable membrane only allows certain substances to pass through

-  Effect of Concentration on a Cell
1. HYPOTONIC – water moves in; cell bursts
2. HYPERTONIC – water moves out; cell shrivels
3. ISOTONIC – no net movement; cell maintains equilibrium

HOMEOSTASIS:  Self-regulating mechanism that maintains internal conditions (with individual cells and within organs, systems) Example:  body temperature, respiration, nutritional balance, etc.  Cells communicate their needs to each other mainly through their cell membranes by releasing chemical messengers that, ultimately, tell the hypothalamus gland in the brain that a change needs to be made in the interstitial fluid. Since it is the ruler of homeostasis, the hypothalamus sends neural and chemical signals to other glands, tissues, organs, and organ systems to adjust the internal environment, the interstitial fluid, so that it is more suitable for all the cells at that particular time. And since we are always changing what we are doing, homeostasis needs to change along with our activities, both day and night. This constantly changing internal environment is the process of homeostasis.

• Negative Feedback:  Glucose / Insulin levels in cells
• Positive Feedback:  Blood platelets / Blood clotting

BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS:  chemical bonds are formed and broken within living things creating chemical reactions that impact the ability to maintain life and carry out life functions

• Cellular Respiration – food molecules are converted to energy; there are three stages to cellular respiration; the first stage is called glycolysis and is anaerobic (no oxygen is required); the next two stages are called the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain and are aerobic (oxygen is required)

C6H12O6    +    6O2    Þ    6CO2    +    6H2O    +    ENERGY (36 ATP)

• Photosynthesis – plant cells capture energy from the Sun and convert it into food (carbohydrates); plant cells then convert the carbohydrates into energy during cellular respiration; the ultimate source of energy for all living things is the Sun (in Chemosynthesis, organisms use sulfur or nitrogen as the main energy source)

6CO2    +    6H2O    +    ENERGY(from sunlight)    Þ    C6H12O6    +    6O2

• ATP – ATP is a molecule that stores and releases the energy in its bonds when the cell needs it; removing a phosphate group (P) releases energy for chemical reactions to occur in the cell and ATP becomes ADP; when the cell has energy, the energy is stored in the bond when the phosphate group is added to the ADP

ATP    Û    ADP    +    P    +    ENERGY

• Fermentation – when cells are not provided with oxygen in a timely manner, this process occurs to continue producing ATP until oxygen is available again; glucose is broken down; there are two types of fermentation

Lactic Acid Fermentation (muscle cells)                 Glucose    Þ    Lactic Acid    +    2ATP
Alcoholic Fermentation (plant cells)                      Glucose    Þ    CO2    +    Alcohol    +    2ATP

AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION:
Aerobic Respiration –

• requires the presence of oxygen
• release of energy from the breakdown of glucose (or another organic compound) in the presence of oxygen
• energy released is used to make ATP, which provides energy for bodily processes
• takes place in almost all living things

Anaerobic Respiration –

• occurs in the absence of oxygen
• breakdown of food substances in the absence of oxygen with the production of a small amount of energy
• produces less energy than aerobic respiration
• often called fermentation
• seen as an adaptation for organisms that live in environments that lack oxygen

CELLULAR RESPIRATION	PHOTOSYNTHESIS	CHEMOSYNTHESIS
Food Broken Down Energy from Glucose Released Carbon Dioxide given off Oxygen taken in Produces Carbon Dioxide and Water Does not require Light Occurs in ALL Living Cells Organisms often called Heterotrophs	Food Synthesized Energy from Sun stored in Glucose Carbon Dioxide taken in Oxygen given off Produces Sugars (Glucose) from PGAL Requires Light Occurs only in presence of Chlorophyll Organisms called Autotrophs	Food Synthesized Energy from Methane or Inorganic Material (ex: H gas or Hydrogen sulfide) Organisms often called chemotrophs Organisms called extremophiles Live in environments without oxygen Anaerobic Bacteria Habitats: hydrothermal vents

 

ENZYMES:
Enzymes are special proteins that regulate nearly every biochemical reaction in the cell.  Different reactions require different enzymes.  Enzymes function to:

• Provide energy to cells
• Build new cells
• Aid in digestion
• Break down complex molecules (“substrate” = reactant)
• Catalysts (speed up chemical reactions without being used up or altered)

Factors that affect enzymes:  pH, temperature, and quantity

 

• Molecular Basis of Heredity, DNA Replication, Protein Synthesis (Transcription, Translation), Gene Regulation
• Characteristics of Sexual and Asexual Reproduction
• Patterns of Inheritance, Dominant / Recessive / Intermediate Traits, Multiple Alleles, Polygenic Inheritance, Sex-Linked Traits, Independent Assortment, Test Cross, Pedigrees, Punnett Squares
• Impact of Advances in Genomics on Individuals and Society, Human Genome Project, Applications of Biotechnology
• Development of Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection, Origin and History of Life, Fossil and Biochemical Evidence, Mechanisms of Evolution, Applications (Pesticides and Antibiotic Resistance)

DNA & RNA:

• Nucleic acids composed of nucleotides
• Nucleotides composed of:

Phosphate group
Sugar
Nitrogenous base

COMPARISON OF DNA AND RNA
DNA	RNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid Double-stranded, twisted helix Never leaves the nucleus Nitrogenous bases:  adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine (Guanine w/Cytosine, Adenine w/Thymine) (Purines opposite the Pyrimidines) (held together by weak hydrogen bonds) Sugar: deoxyribose Controls production of all proteins DNA Replication: (DNA unravels and each strand makes a new exact copy so that when mitosis takes place, each cell has the exact copy of DNA) DNA coiled into chromosomes in nucleus Tiny sections of DNA are called genes Sequence of bases determines sequence of amino acids in proteins	Ribonucleic acid Single-stranded Leaves the nucleus Nitrogenous bases: adenine, uracil, guanine, cytosine (Guanine w/Cytosine, Adenine w/Uracil) Sugar: ribose Three major types of RNA (Ribosomal – rRNA; Messenger – mRNA; Transfer – tRNA) Leaves the nucleus to carry out functions in cytoplasm Transcription: (mRNA is made from one strand of DNA, carries message to ribosomes) Translation: (mRNA translated into a protein at the ribosomes; tRNA transfers amino acids from cytoplasm to ribosomes)

 

CELL DIVISION:

• process of copying and dividing the entire cell
• the cell grows, prepares for division, and then divides to form new daughter cells
• allows unicellular organisms to duplicate in a process called asexual reproduction
• allows multicellular organisms to grow, develop from a single cell into a multicellular organism, make other cells to repair and replace worn out cells
• three types:  binary fission (bacteria and fungi), mitosis, and meiosis

COMPARISON OF MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
MITOSIS	MEIOSIS
Cell cycle consists of interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis Interphase – longest part of cell cycle Growth, metabolism, and preparation for division occurs Duplicates chromosomes (DNA Replication) Mitosis – division of nucleus of the cell Prophase -  duplicated chromosomes and spindle fibers appear Metaphase – duplicated chromosomes line up randomly in center of cell between spindle fibers Anaphase – duplicated chromosomes pulled to opposite ends of cell Telophase – nuclear membrane forms around chromosomes at each end of cell; spindle fibers disappear; chromosomes disperse Cytokinesis – division of plasma membrane; two daughter cells result with exact genetic information (in plant cells a “cell plate” forms along the center of the cell and cuts the cell in half; cell plate forms new cell walls once the plasma membrane divides) RESULTS: Two daughter cells (body cells) Same number of chromosomes as original cell (humans = 46) Cells are diploid (human diploid # = 46 or 23 homologous pairs)	Consists of two cell divisions, but only one chromosome replication (sometimes called reduction division) Each cell division consists of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase Occurs only in sex cells – to produce more sex cells (gametes) First Meiosis Division Produces cells containing ½ # of double stranded chromosomes Second Meiosis Division Results in formation of four cells Each cell w/ ½ # of single-stranded chromosomes (haploid cells) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Sperm Each primary sperm cell develops into four haploid cells of equal size.  As cells mature, the cells lose most of their cytoplasm and develop a long whip-like tail for movement. Egg Each primary egg cell develops into one large haploid cell and three smaller haploid cells called polar bodies.  The first meiosis division produces one large cell and one polar body.  The second meiosis causes the large cell to produce one egg cell and a polar body; the original smaller polar body divides into two polar bodies.  The polar bodies eventually disintegrate.  The final egg cell is provided with the larger supply of stored nutrients RESULTS: Four daughter cells (sex cells) ½ # of chromosomes (haploid) with genetic variation (n = 23) Sex cells combine during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid individual

 

GENETICS:

• branch of biology that deals with heredity
• Gregor Mendel experimented with sweet pea plants in 1800s
• Trait – characteristic an individual receives from its parents
• Gene – carries instructions responsible for expression of traits; a pair of inherited genes controls a trait; one member of the pair comes from each parent; often called alleles
• Homozygous – two alleles of a pair are identical (BB or bb)
• Heterozygous – two alleles of a pair are different (Bb); often called “hybrid”
• Dominant – controlling allele; designated with a capital letter
• Recessive – hidden allele; designated with lower-case letters
• Genotype – genetic makeup of an organism (represented by the letters)
• Phenotype – physical appearance of an organism (description of the letters)
• Monohybrid – cross involving one trait
• Dihybrid – cross involving two traits
• Punnett Square – graphic organizer used to show the probable results of a genetic cross
• Pedigree – graphic organizer to map genetic traits between generations
• Karyotype – chart of metaphase chromosome pairs to study chromosome number / diseases
• Test Cross – mating of an individual of unknown genotype with an individual of known genotype; can help to determine the unknown genotype of the parent

MENDELS LAWS OF HEREDITY:
1.  Law of Dominance
- the dominant allele will prevent the recessive allele from being expressed
- recessive allele will appear when it is paired with another recessive allele in the offspring
2. Law of Segregation
- gene pairs separate when gametes (sex cells) are formed
- each gamete has only one allele of each gene pair
3. Law of Independent Assortment
- different pairs of genes separate independently of each other when gametes are formed (Anaphase II in Meiosis)

 

PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE:
Sex Chromosomes

• 23rd pair of chromosomes; Males = XY; Females = XX

Sex-Linked Traits

• traits associated with particular sexes
• X-Linked Traits inherited on X chromosome from mother (ex: colorblindness, baldness, hemophilia)

Linked Traits

• genes are linked on chromosomes; genes on same chromosome are inherited together; ex: red hair and freckles
• one trait controlled by many genes (ex: hair color, eye color, skin pigment)

Multiple Alleles
-   presence of more than two alleles for a trait (ex: eye color)
Polygenic Inheritance
-   one trait controlled by many genes (ex: hair color, skin color); genes may be on the same or different chromosomes
Codominance
-   phenotypes of both homozygous parents are produced in heterozygous offspring so that both alleles are equally expressed (ex: black chicken + white chicken = checkered chickens), (ex: sickle cell anemia)
Incomplete Dominance
-   phenotype of a heterozygote is intermediate between the two homozygous parents; neither allele is dominant, but combine to display a new trait (ex:  red flower + white flower = pink flower)
Dominance / Recessive ness
-   observed trait is controlled by a homozygous genotype
-   ex: dominance disease – Huntington’s; ex: recessive disease – Cystic Fibrosis and Tay Sach’s
SOURCES OF VARIATION:
Crossing Over

• genes from one chromosome are exchanged with genes from another chromosome
• occurs regularly during meiosis and leads to greater genetic variation
• many different phenotypes are a result of the random assortment of genes that occurs during sexual reproduction

Nondisjunction

• during meiosis, homologous pairs of chromosomes don’t separate
• results in half the sex cells having an extra chromosome and the other half having one less chromosome
• if fertilization occurs with an abnormal sex cell, zygote formed will have either one extra (trisomy) or one less (monosomy) than the diploid number (ex:  Down’s Syndrome caused by extra 21st chromosome)

Genetic Variation

• influenced by crossing over, mutations, genetic engineering, random assortment of genes, natural selection
• genetic variation controlled by sexual reproduction (does not occur in asexual reproduction)
• gene regulation vs. gene expression – the expression of genes is regulated by turning genes on / off or amount of action
• environment can influence magnitude of gene expression (ex: improper nutrition can prevent proper bone growth)

MUTATIONS:

• change in genetic code
• passed from one cell to new cells
• transmitted to offspring if occurs in sex cells
• most have no effect
• Gene Mutation – change in a single gene
• Chromosome Mutation – change in many genes
• Can be spontaneous or caused by environmental mutagens (radiation, chemicals, etc.)

 

LAWS OF PROBABILITY TO PREDICT INHERITANCE:
- Punnett Squares provide a shorthand way of finding expected proportions of possible genotypes and phenotypes in the offspring of a cross.
- Fertilization must occur at random
- Results are expected, not actual; results based on chance
- Results predicted by probability are more likely to be seen when there is a large number of offspring
- a monohybrid cross contains four boxes; a cross between two heterozygous individuals would reveal a 1:2:1 genotype ration and a 3:1 phenotype ratio in the offspring; the probability that the offspring will show a dominant phenotype is ¾, or 75%
- a dihybrid cross contains sixteen boxes; a dihybrid cross reveals two traits for both parents; a cross between two heterozygous individuals would reveal a 9:3:3:1 phenotype ratio in the offspring

 

GENETIC ENGINEERING (GENOMICS):

• sometimes called biotechnology
• process of transferring a gene (DNA) from one organism to another
• Organisms with transferred gene now produce “recombined” genetic code ( called “recombinant DNA”)
• Ex: insulin produced through bacteria
• Ex: oil-eating bacteria
• Has application in medicine,  environment, industry, agriculture, selective breeding
• Human Genome Project
• DNA Fingerprinting

ORIGINS OF LIFE:
Biogenesis – idea that living organisms came only from other living organisms
Spontaneous Generation – mistaken idea that life can arise from nonliving materials; sometimes called Abiogenesis
- Francesco Redi performed controlled experiments that tested spontaneous generation of maggots from decaying meat – disproved idea.
- Louis Pasteur performed controlled experiments that tested spontaneous generation of microorganisms in nutrient broth – disproved idea.
Protocells – large, ordered structure, enclosed by a membrane, that carries out some life activities, such as growth and division; name given to first living cells, possibly photosynthetic prokaryotes; may have arisen through organic evolution; eukaryotes may have arisen through endosymbiosis (symbiotic relationship between prokaryotes)

 

NATURAL SELECTION and THEORY OF EVOLUTION:

• proposed by Charles Darwin
• process by which organisms that are best suited to environment survive and pass genetic traits on to offspring
• has no effect on increased production of offspring, fossil formation, or changes in habitat
• adaptation – organisms with the most suited traits will survive
• evolution – change in a species over time (not a single individual, but the group)
• microevolution – evolution that occurs within the species level; results from genetic variation and natural selection within a population
• antibiotic resistance
• pesticide resistance
• macroevolution – evolution that occurs between different species; focuses on how groups of organisms change
• convergent evolution – two species evolve similarly
• divergent evolution – a group of species evolve differently
• adaptive radiation – a group of species adapt separately to environments
• speciation – formation of a new species
• geographic isolation – physical barrier divides a population, results in individuals that cannot mate, leads to a new species
• reproductive isolation – genetic mutation or behavioral change prevent mating

EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION:
- Fossils – may appear in rocks, ice, amber; when fossils are arranged in order of their age, the fossil record provides a series of changes that occurred over time; comparison of anatomical characteristics reveals shared ancestry
-  DNA -   when gene or protein sequences from organisms are arranged, species thought to be closely related based on fossil evidence are seen to be more similar than species thought to be distantly related
-  Embryology – embryos of different vertebrates look alike in their early stages, giving the superficial appearance of a relationship

 

• Classification of Organisms according to Evolutionary Relationships, Historical Development and Changing Nature of Classification Systems, Eukaryotic vs. Prokaryotic Organics, Eukaryotic Kingdoms, Dichotomous Keys
• Processes by which Organisms or Representative Groups accomplish Essential Life Functions
• Adaptations affecting Survival and Reproduction, Structural Adaptations in Plants and Animals, Disease-Causing Viruses and Microorganisms, Co-Evolution
• Interactive Role of Internal / External Factors in Health and Disease, Genetics, Immune Response, Nutrition, Parasites, Toxins
• Patterns of Animal Behavior as Adaptations to the Environment, Innate / Learned Behavior

CLASSIFICATION:

• process in understanding how organisms are related and how they are different
• taxonomy – branch of biology that studies grouping and naming of organisms
• history of classification systems

        -  4th Century B.C., Aristotle proposed two groups (plants and animals) and used common names for identification, based on “blood” and “bloodless”
-  early 1700s, Carolus Linnaeus developed a system based on physical characteristics
- two kingdoms (plants and animals)
- developed “genus” and “species”
- designed system of naming called binomial nomenclature (“two names”) which gave each organism two names, a genus and a species, Genus always capitalized, both should be underlined or italicized

• Six kingdoms:  Archaebacteria, Eubacteria), Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia
• a dichotomous key is a tool used to identify organisms by using pairs of contrasting characteristics
• basis of current classification:  phylogeny, DNA / biochemical analysis, embryology, morphology, Phylogenetic trees

LEVELS OF CLASSIFICATION:

• Kingdom
• Phylum
• Class
• Order
• Family
• Genus
• Species

CLASSIFICATION OF HUMANS:
Kingdom Animalia (multicellular organisms that eat food)
Phylum Chordata (dorsal hollow nerve cord, notochord, pharyngeal slits)
Class Mammalia (hair, mammary glands, endothermy, four-chambered heart)
Order Primates (nails, clavicle, orbits encircled with bone, enlarged cerebrum, opposable digits)
Family Homidae (bipedal – walk erect on two feet, advanced tool use)
Genus Homo (“human” like)
Species Homo sapiens

 

COMPARISON OF EUKARYOTE TO PROKARYOTE:
Prokaryote – has nuclear material in the center of the cell, but is not enclosed by a nuclear membrane; no membrane bound organelles; examples:  bacteria and blue-green algae
Eukaryote – contain a clearly defined nucleus enclosed by a nuclear membrane and membrane bound organelles; examples: plants, animals, fungi, and protists

 

COMPARISON OF KINGDOM CHARACTERISTICS
MONERA	PROTISTA	FUNGI	PLANTAE	ANIMALIA
Bacteria Prokaryote Unicellular, colonial Aerobic / anaerobic Decomposer Heterotrophic Photosynthetic (some) Chemosynthetic (some) Pathogenic Medicinal Classified by shape Binary fission Vaccines, antibiotics Ex: streptococcus	Protists Eukaryote Unicellular Multicellular Aerobic Pathogenic / parasitic Animal-like (protozoa) Plant-like (algae) Medicinal, food source Mobile Ex: amoeba	Eukaryote Multicelluar Aerobic Decomposer Lack chlorophyll Pathogenic Saprophytic / parasitic Medicinal, food source Heterotrophic Sexual / asexual Alternation of generations Often symbiotic with algae Ex: mushroom	Eukaryote Multicellular Aerobic Producer Photosynthesis Cell wall (cellulose) Vascular system, seeds Poisonous Medicinal, food source Alternation of generations Roots, stems, leaves Pollination(fertilization) Germination Ex: oak	Eukaryote Multicellular Aerobic Consumer Cellular respiration Invertebrates Vertebrates Symmetry Ex: Homo sapiens

 Note:  Current classification systems reveal six kingdoms, where Monerans are divided into Archaebacteria (ancient bacteria, anaerobic nature) and Eubacteria (true bacteria, aerobic nature).

 

VIRUSES:
Note:  Viruses are not considered living organisms!

• composed of a nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat
• use living cells to replicate viral nucleic acid
• infects a living cell when the virus injects its nucleic acid into the host cell; the viral nucleic acid replicates and makes more viruses
• two processes to infect host cells:  the lytic cycle and the lysogenic cycle
• lytic: virus attached to host cell injects its nucleic acid into host; nucleic acid is immediately replicated; host bursts; releases virus
• lysogenic: host infected but does not immediately die; viral DNA is replicated along with host DNA; virus becomes dormant; spontaneously enters lytic cycle and cell bursts – may be years later
• viruses can infect animals, plants, and bacteria
• viruses do not respond to drug treatment
• immunity must be acquired naturally or from vaccinations

PLANTS	INVERTEBRATES	VERTEBRATES
Spore-Producing Plants Nonvascular, produce spores Remain small– absorb water by osmosis Sperm swim to fertilize eggs Live in moist environments Reproduce sexually Alternation of Generations (You see the gametophyte generation) Mosses and liverworts Vascular Plants Two types of vascular tissue Xylem – transports water and minerals (UP) Phloem – transports sugars (DOWN) Produce spores Club mosses, horsetails, ferns Require water for reproduction Alternation of Generations (you see the sporophyte generation) Seed Producing Vascular Plants Vascular, Produce seeds Seed = embryo protected by a seed coat Two groups based on reproduction Gymnosperms – cone-bearing Angiosperms – flowering - monocots (corn) and dicots (flowers) Roots – anchor, absorb water, store food Stems – support, transport Leaves – photosynthesis, produces food Adaptations – seed, pollen, fruit, flowers Pollination – fertilization, germination	Three types of symmetry No symmetry (disorganized) Radial symmetry (around a central point) Bilateral symmetry (equal on both sides) Specialized bodily functions No backbone, usually outer covering (exoskeleton) May be hydrostatic (water-based, aquatic) Sponges (Porifera) No symmetry Cnidarians (Coelenterata) Jellyfish, hydrostatic, radial symmetry Specialized stinging cells in tentacles Flatworms (Platyhelminthes) Leeches, bilateral symmetry Suckers for removing fluids from host Roundworms (Nematoda) Parasites, radial symmetry Segmented worms earthworms decomposers Mollusks (Mollusca) Clams, oysters (bivalves) Hard outer shell (calcium carbonate) Food source Arthropods (Arthropoda) Crabs, insects (segmented body) Pollinators, bilateral symmetry Echinoderms (Echinodermata) starfish radial symmetry	Have a coelom (true body cavity) Skeletal systems (endoskeleton) Strong, flexible backbone (support) Bilateral symmetry Aquatic or terrestrial environments Organized systems Jawless fishes Lampreys Cartilaginous fishes Sharks, cartilage Bony fishes Bass, trout Scales, paired fins, gills, bone External fertilization Amphibians Salamanders, frogs Moist skin and lack scales Have gills as young, lungs  and limbs as adults External fertilization Reptiles Snakes, turtles Dry, scaly skin Internal fertilization Terrestrial eggs (leathery shells) Developed lungs, strong limbs Birds Hawks, eagles, robin Feathers, hollow bones, strong muscles Efficient heart and lungs for flying Internal fertilization (terrestrial amniotic egg) Mammals Humans, monkeys, whales Hair or fur Internal fertilization (internal development)

 

 

 

REPRESENTATIVE GROUPS AND ESSENTIAL LIFE FUNCTIONS
	Unicellular Protists	Annelid Worms	Insects	Amphibians	Mammals	Nonvascular Plants	Angiosperms	Gymnosperms
Transport	Diffusion	Closed Circulatory System	Open Circulatory System	Closed Circulatory 3 Chambers	Closed Circulatory 4 Chambers	NO Xylem NO Phloem	Xylem and Phloem Transpiration, Conduction, and Absorption
Excretion	Pinocytosis Phagocytosis Diffusion	Coelom with Septa	Malpighian Tubes	Cloaca Cloaca Vent	Kidneys Bladder Anus	Transpiration (water) Photosynthesis (carbon dioxide)
Respiration	Aerobic Mitochondria Photosynthesis	Skin Blood Vessels	Tracheal Tubes	Gills Lungs Moist Skin	Lungs	Cellular Respiration in Mitochondria Release Oxygen, Burn Glucose
Regulation	Flagella, Cilia Pseudopodia Eyespot	Nerve Cord Lateral Nerves Vascular System	Brain, Ventral Nerve Cord	Ectotherms	Endotherm Brain Neocortex	NO Roots NO Stems NO Leaves	Roots, Stems and Leaves Tracheids and Sieve Tube Members
Nutrition Filter Feeders>	Internal Digestion (Pinocytosis)	Filter Feeders Scavengers Deposit Feeders	CoEvolution with Plants for Pollination	Carnivores Attached Tongue	Herbivores Carnivores	Water and Sugars (Photosynthesis) Nitrogen Sunlight
Synthesis	Form Cysts Starch Spores	Regeneration	Honey, Wax, Silk, Lacquer, etc.	Glandular Secretions (Poison)	Sweat Milk	Glucose	Glucose Seeds Flowers	Glucose Seeds Cones
Reproduction	Sexual Asexual	Asexual (fission) Sexual (hermaphrodite)	Sexual Ovoviviparous Viviparous	Sexual Direct Development	Sexual	Sexual Asexual Alternation of Generations (AoG)
Growth and Development	Spores (AoG) Water Bases Habitat	True Segmentation Replication	Eggs Metamorphosis	Eggs in Jelly Tadpole Stage Metamorphosis	Placenta Eggs (few)	Water Based Habitat	Land Based Flowers	Land Based Cones

MAJOR SYSTEMS AND ORGANS
SYSTEM	FUNCTION	BASIC ORGANS, AND STRUCTURAL PARTS
Circulatory	Transports nutrients, fluids, gases	Heart, veins, arteries
Digestive	Breaks down food into essential nutrients	Mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines
Endocrine	Controls body functions through hormones	Glands which secrete hormones
Excretory	Removes cellular wastes from the blood	Bladder, kidneys, urethra
Immune	Protects the body against invading organisms	White blood cells
Integumentary	Protects the body by forming the body’s outer layer	Skin, hair, nails
Muscular	Moves the body with the help of the skeletal system	Muscles
Skeletal	Supports the body internally	Bones, cartilage, ligaments, tendons
Nervous	Coordinates sensory input with motor output	Brain, spinal cord, sense organs
Reproductive	Provides a means of producing offspring	Testes (male), ovaries and uterus (female)
Respiratory	Controls the exchange of gases	Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs

 

REPRODUCTION, GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT:
Reproduction – production of offspring by an organism; a characteristic of all living things (can be sexual or asexual); exists for the continuation of the species, not the individual
Growth – increase in the amount of living material and formation of new structures in an organism; a characteristic of all living things; ex: getting bigger, growing muscle, longer bones, etc.
Development – all the changes that take place during the life of an organism; a characteristic of all living things; ex: infancy, youth, puberty, adulthood, death

 

DISEASE CAUSING MICROORGANISMS:
- Microorganisms are living organisms, usually unicellular bacteria, than can only be seen with a microscope.
- Benefits of microorganisms:  help us to digest food, encourage normal development of the immune system, fight off bad organisms
- Microbes (or pathogens) include viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites, which cause disease when our immune system can’t fight them
- Microorganisms can be identified based on their size, shape, color, ability to form colonies, etc.
- Process of growing the organism is called a culture, and can be used to test sensitivity of organisms to various antibiotics which will help a doctor determine which drug to use in treating an infection.
- An infectious disease in humans occurs when balance is disturbed by: exposure to an organism, normal microorganisms in the body become pathogenic, or the human immune system does not act fast enough or strong enough.
- Most common areas on the body for microorganisms: skin, mouth, upper airway, intestine, genitals

 

EXAMPLES OF INFECTIOUS ORGANISMS:
- Bacteria – microscopic, single celled
Streptococcus pyogenes (strep throat)
Escherichia coli (urinary tract or intestinal infection)
- Viruses – cannot reproduce on its own (invades a host cell)
Varicella zoster (chicken pox)
Rhinovirus (common cold)
- Fungi – yeasts, molds, mushrooms
Candida albicans (yeast infection)
Tinea pedis (athlete’s foot)
- Parasites – organism such as a worm or single celled animal (protozoan) that survive by living inside another organism (host)
Enterobius vermicularis (pinworm)
Plasmodium falciparum (malaria)

 

DEFENSES AGAINST INFECTION:
First Line of Immune Defense:
- Physical Barriers -  skin, mucous membranes (linings of the mouth, nose, eyelids), airways, stomach acid, pancreatic enzymes, bile, intestinal secretions, urinary secretions
Second Line of Immune Defense:
- Blood – increasing the number of certain types of white blood cells that engulf and destroy invading microorganisms
- Inflammation – release or substances from damaged tissue isolates area to attack and kill invaders and dispose of dead and damaged tissue, and to begin repair; blood supply increases which brings more white blood cells to swollen area
- Fever – body temperature increases to enhance defense ability (controlled by hypothalamus in brain); causes shivers, chills, body aches; normal body temperature is 98.6ºF, a fever is considered higher then 100ºF.
Third Line of Immune Defense:
- Immune Response – immune system responds by producing substances that attack invaders (ex: killer T cells, phagocytes) and the immune system produces antibodies that attach to and immobilize the invader to kill it; antibodies will “remember” the infectious organism so it will kill it upon next exposure; immune system is present all over the body and tightly bound to blood and lymph systems; tissues and cells that provide antibodies include red bone marrow, thymus, spleen, circulating lymphatic system, and white blood cells.
- There are two types of immunity:
- Natural Immunity – created by body’s natural physical barriers or in the form of antibodies passed from mother to child
- Acquired Immunity – created by exposure to a specific microorganism, which is “remembered” by the body’s immune system - Immunization – body’s ability to fight off certain organisms is stimulated or enhanced
1.  Active Immunization – contain either noninfectious fragments or whole pieces of bacteria or viruses that have been weakened so they will not cause infection but will instead cause the production of antibodies (vaccination)
2.  Passive Immunization – antibodies against a specific infectious organism are given directly to the person (vaccine may not be available)
External Defenses:
- Antibiotics – organic substances synthesized by microorganisms or at a lab used to treat infectious diseases or to prevent them; each antibiotic is specific to a certain bacteria; can be administered by mouth, vein, or muscle
- Hygiene – keeping a clean environment that limits exposure to infected bodily fluids, decomposing material, or infected people will prevent the spread of infection

 

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE:
- some bacteria are resistant to antibiotics because they have enzymes that can destroy the antibiotics or because of genetic mutation that allow them to grow despite the antibiotics
- increasing numbers of microorganisms have become resistant to antibiotics are violent and untreatable, now called “superbugs”
- overuse of antibiotics has led to the development of resistant bacteria
How can you prevent the spread of antibiotic resistance?
- avoid antibiotics unless they are clearly needed
- do not take antibiotics without the advice of a doctor
- take the full course of prescription
- do not save antibiotics for later
- do not demand antibiotics from the doctor

 

ANIMAL BEHAVIORAL ADAPTATIONS:
Behavior – animal’s response to a stimulus
Innate behavior – instinct; influenced by genes
Ex: bird defending its nest
Learned behavior – changed by experience
Ex: training a pet to respond to a specific name
Social behavior – interactions between members of the same species
Ex: mating and caring for offspring
Territorial behavior – organisms defend an area to keep out other organisms (ex: animal marking trees)
Reflex – automatic, neuromuscular action (ex: knee jerk)
Taxis – response to a directional stimulus; organism is motile

 

CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS AND RHYTHMIC BEHAVIOR:

• 24 hour cycle in plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria
• Biological rhythms can be daily, weekly, seasonal, annual
• Can be influenced by external factors such as sunlight and temperature
• Rhythmic behavior can be passed through genes to offspring
• Include behaviors such as sleeping, eating, brainwave activity, hormone production, cell regeneration, mating and sexual reproduction, hibernation, estivation, etc.

ADAPTIVE RESPONSES:
-  Mimicry – structural adaptation that allows one species to resemble another species; may provide protection from predators
-  Camouflage – structural adaptation that enables species to blend with their surroundings; allows a species to avoid detection
-  Migration – instinctive seasonal movements of animals from place to place
     - Emigration – movement of individuals from a population; leaving the population
- Immigration – movement of individuals into a population
-  Hibernation – state of reduced metabolism occurring in animals that sleep during parts of cold winter months; an animal’s temperature drops, oxygen consumption decreases, and breathing rate declines
-  Estivation – state of reduced metabolism that occurs in animals living in conditions of intense heat
-  Mating / Reproduction – production of offspring for the survival of the species; can be seasonally scheduled

 

PLANT TROPISM:
Growth responses that result in curvature of plant organs towards or away from stimuli due to different rates of elongation
Geotropism – response to gravity; roots have positive geotropism; stems have negative geotropism
Phototropism – response to light (leaves)
Hydrotropism – response to water (roots)
Thigmotropism – response to touch (venus flytrap)
Chemotropism – response to chemicals

 

ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM
SUN     >>>>>              GRASS            >>>>>              MICE               >>>>>              HAWK
Sunlight is the main energy source for living things.  Energy flows through an ecosystem from the sun to organisms within the ecosystem in one direction. Two main groups of organisms in the ecosystem are the producers and consumers.
Producers – autotrophs, use sun’s energy to make their own food, plants (grass)
Consumers – heterotrophs, cannot make their own food, eat other living things to get their energy (mice- primary consumers; and hawk- secondary consumer)

 

STRUCTURE OF AN ECOSYSTEM
Organism  >>>>>  Species  >>>>>  Population  >>>>>  Community  >>>>>  Ecosystem  >>>>>  Environment
Species – group of organisms that can interbreed              Population – units of single species
Community – groups of interacting populations                  Ecosystem – groups of interacting communities
Habitat – place where an organism lives                             Niche – organism’s role within its habitat

 

GROUPS OF ORGANISMS
Consumer	Energy Source	Example
Herbivore	Eat plants	Deer
Carnivore	Eat other animals	Lion
Omnivore	Eat plants and animals	Human
Decomposer	Break down dead organisms	Bacteria & Fungi

 

SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS:
Symbiosis – permanent, close association between one or more organisms of different species
Mutualism – a symbiotic relationship in which both species benefit (ex: in subtropical regions, ants protect acacia trees by fighting invaders, acacia tree provides nectar to ants)
Commensalism – symbiotic relationship in which one species benefits and the other species is neither harmed nor benefited (ex: Spanish moss grows on and hangs from limbs of trees, but does not obtain any nutrients from tree, nor harm the tree)
Parasitism – symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits at the expense of another, usually another species (ex: parasites such as bacteria, roundworms, tapeworms live in the intestines of organisms to obtain nutrients and reproduce, but cause disease in the organisms)

 

FOOD CHAIN:

• Path of energy from producer to consumer
• Each level is called a trophic level (trophic = energy)
• Approximately 10% energy is transferred to next level
• 90% used for personal metabolism and development

FOOD WEB:

• Interconnected food chains
• Shows all possible feeding relationships at each trophic level in a community

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID:

• Representation of energy transfer
• Pyramid of Energy – each level represents energy available at that level, 90% decline
• Pyramid of Biomass – each level represents amount level above needs to consume
• Pyramid of Numbers – each level represents number of organisms consumed by level above it

SOME EXAMPLES OF
ENVIRONMENTAL LIMITING FACTORS
Biotic (living)        Abiotic (nonliving)
Plants                      Climate
Animals                    Light
Bacteria                   Soil
Prey                         Water
Food Sources          Shelter
(Nutrients)               Pollution

 

SPECIES / POPULATION SURVIVAL:
-  Natural Selection – mechanism for change in populations; occurs when organisms with favorable variations survive, reproduce, and pass their variations to the next generation; “survival of the fittest”
-  Adaptation (Behavioral or Physiological) – evolution of a structure, behavior, or internal process that enables an organism to respond to environmental factors and live to produce offspring
-  Limiting Factors (Environmental) – any biotic or abiotic factor that restricts the existence, numbers, reproduction, or distribution of organisms
-  Genetic Mutations – any change or random error in a DNA sequence (one gene or many; somatic cells or gametes)
-  Biodiversity – variety of life in an area; usually measured as the number of species that live in an area
-  Evolution (Macroevolution vs. Microevolution) – gradual change in a species through adaptations over time
-  Endangered Species – number of individuals in the species falls so low that extinction is possible
-  Extinction – disappearance of a species when the last of its members die

 

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS:

• require food for energy to carry out life processes
• use energy to maintain homeostasis
• respond to stimuli in the environment
• grow and develop
• reproduce similar offspring
• pass genetic information to their offspring
• composed of cells
• composed of organic based compounds

 

ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS:
- type of life cycle found in some algae, fungi, and all plants where an organism alternates between a haploid (n) gametophyte generation and a diploid (2n) sporophyte generation

 

CYCLES:
(Matter cannot be created nor destroyed, but can be converted/recycled to other forms)
Water Cycle – water is recycled through evaporation, condensation, precipitation, runoff, groundwater, aquifers, respiration, transpiration, excretion, decomposition
Nitrogen Cycle – producers take in nitrogen compounds in soil and pass to consumers that consume the producers; decomposers (bacteria) break down nitrogen compounds and release nitrogen gas to air or usable nitrogen so the soil
Carbon Cycle – carbon is recycled through respiration, photosynthesis, fuel combustion, decomposition; carbon can be atmospheric or dissolved, or can be found in organic compounds within the body

 

ECOLOGY FIELD STUDY:
- using specific methods and procedures to study plants and animals in their natural setting, and to observe interrelationships of living and non-living factors in a specific habitat
-  observations might include:  temperature recordings, location, soil description, number and kinds of plants and animals, food source(s), rainfall amount, change in growth, interactions between organisms, identification of organisms into genus and species, temperature variations from morning to afternoon to night, light levels (at different times of day), sound levels (at different times of day), photographs, diagrams of levels (ground level, canopy level, etc.) and the animals and plants at each level, water sampling, quadrant studies, graphs of growth
- field study requires the collection of data and the analysis of data through graphs, charts, diagrams, etc.
- field study also requires the recording of all observations, data, etc. into a legitimate field notebook that would include personal interpretations, photographs, newspaper clippings, etc.