Chapter 8
Evolutionary Perspectives on Personality

Chapter Outline

Evolution and Natural Selection

• All humans today come from an unbroken line of ancestors who accomplished two tasks: They survived to reproductive age, and they reproduced
• We carry adaptive mechanisms that led to our ancestors’ success
• Human nature and human personality are made up of a collection of evolved mechanisms
• Before Darwin, two features of evolution were recognized: Change over time and apparent adaptation to environment

 

Natural Selection

• Darwin revolutionized biology by proposing a theory of the process by which adaptations are created and changes take place over time—natural selection
• More offspring produced than can survive and reproduce
• Changes or variants that better enabled an organism to survive and reproduce lead to more descendants
• Descendants inherit variants that led to their ancestors’ success
• Thus, successful variants are selected and unsuccessful variants are weeded out
• Over time, successful variants come to characterize entire species
• Adaptations; inherited solutions to survival and reproductive problems posed by hostile forces of nature

Sexual Selection

• Darwin noticed that many mechanisms seemed to threaten survival, such as the peacock’s elaborate plumage and the stag’s large antlers
• Darwin proposed evolution by sexual selection as solution—these traits evolved because they contributed to an individual’s mating success
• Two forms of sexual selection
• Intrasexual competition: Members of the same sex compete with each other for sexual access to members of the other sex
• Intersexual competition: Members of one sex choose a mate based on their preferences for particular qualities in that mate

Genes and Inclusive Fitness

• Gene—packet of DNA inherited by children from parents; smallest discrete unit inherited without being broken up
• Discovery of the gene as a unit of inheritance led to key discovery, that natural selection and sexual selection are different forms of the same process
• Differential gene reproduction—reproductive success relative to others
• Inclusive fitness theory (Hamilton, 1964)
• Inclusive fitness: personal reproductive success (number of offspring you produce) plus effects you have on the reproduction of your genetic relatives, weighted by genetic relatedness

 

Products of the Evolutionary Process

                        Adaptations

• Adaptations are the primary products of selection, defined as “reliably developing structure in the organism which, because it meshes with the recurrent structure of the world, causes the solution to an adaptive problem”
• Adaptive problem: Anything that impedes survival or reproduction
• Hallmark of adaptations are special design, including efficiency, precision, and reliability

Byproducts of Adaptations

• Byproducts are incidental effects of adaptations not properly considered to be adaptations

Noise or Random Variation

• Neutral with respect to selection

Evolutionary Psychology

            Premises of Evolutionary Psychology

• Domain-specificity: Adaptations are designed by evolutionary process to solve specialized adaptive problems
• Numerousness: Expectation is that there are many psychological adaptations, because different adaptations are required to solve different adaptive problems
• Functionality: Psychological adaptations are designed to accomplish particular adaptive goals

 

Empirical Testing of Evolutionary Hypotheses

• Hierarchy of levels of analysis in evolutionary psychology
• General evolutionary theory
• Middle-level evolutionary theories
• Specific hypotheses
• Specific, testable, falsifiable predictions
• Two modes of conducting empirical research
• Deductive reasoning approach: “Top down,” theory-driven method
• Inductive reasoning approach: “Bottom up,” data-driven method
• Both equally valid modes of conducting research in any area of science, including evolutionary psychology

Human Nature

• Human nature is a product of evolutionary process
• Psychological mechanisms that are successful in helping humans survive and reproduce out-replicate those that are less successful
• Over evolutionary time, successful mechanisms spread through population and come to characterize all humans
• Examples of evolutionary analysis at the level of human nature
• The Need to Belong
• Helping and Altruism
• Universal Emotions

 

Sex Differences

• Evolutionary psychologists expect that males and females will be the same or similar in all domains where sexes have faced the same or similar adaptive problems
• Expect sex differences in those domains where sexes recurrently faced different adaptive problems
• Examples of differences between men and women that are attributable to recurrently facing different adaptive problems:
• Sex Differences in Aggression
• Sex Differences in Jealousy
• Sex Differences in Desire for Sexual Variety
• Sex Differences in Mate Preferences

 

Individual Differences

• Most challenging and difficult level of analysis for evolutionary psychologists
• Three evolutionary perspectives on individual differences
• Environmental triggers of individual differences—e.g., father absence directing individuals toward short-term sexual strategy
• Adaptive self-assessment of heritable individual differences—e.g., individuals who are muscular and large pursue a more aggressive strategy than those who are less muscular and smaller
• Frequency-dependent strategic individual differences—e.g., short-term and long-term sexual strategies of women are maintained in the population at a frequency where reproductive benefits of strategies are equal

 

The Big Five and Evolutionarily-Relevant Adaptive Problems

• Big Five personality traits as clusters of key features of “adaptive landscape” of other people
• Humans have evolved “difference-detecting mechanisms” designed to notice and remember individual differences that have most relevance for solving social adaptive problems

Limitations of Evolutionary Psychology

• Adaptations are forged over long expanse of evolutionary time, and we cannot go back to determine with certainty what the precise selective forces on humans have been
• Forced to make inferences
• But current mechanisms provide windows for viewing the past
• Learning more about our evolved mechanisms is a tool for overcoming limitation of sparse knowledge of ancestral environments
• Evolutionary scientists have just scratched the surface of understanding the nature, details, and design features of evolved psychological mechanisms
• Modern conditions are undoubtedly different from ancestral conditions in many ways, and so what was adaptive in the past might not be adaptive today
• It is sometimes easy to come up with different and competing evolutionary hypotheses for the same phenomena—true of all science
• Onus is on the researcher to fashion specific, testable, and falsifiable hypotheses
• Thus, competing theories can be pitted against each other and data can be the final arbiter
• Evolutionary hypotheses are sometimes accused of being untestable and hence unfalsifiable, but this is no more true than for any other science

 

SUMMARY AND EVALUATION

• Selection is key to evolution, or change in a species over time
• Variants that lead to greater genetic replication spread through the population
• Evolutionary psychology has three premises: Adaptations are domain-specific, numerous, and functional
• Evolutionary psychology proceeds through both deductive research approach and inductive research approach
• Evolutionary psychology can be applied to all three levels of personality analysis—human nature, sex differences, individual differences
• Evolutionary psychology has several limitations, but this perspective adds a useful set of theoretical tools to the analysis of personality at levels of human nature, sex differences, and individual differences

 

KEY TERMS

            Natural Selection                               Domain Specific
Hostile Forces of Nature                    Functionality
Adaptations                                       Deductive Reasoning Approach
Sexual Selection                                Inductive Reasoning Approach
Intrasexual Competition                    Social Anxiety
Intersexual Selection                         Evolutionary-Predicted Sex Differences
Genes                                                 Effective Polygyny
Differential Gene Reproduction        Sexually Dimorphic
Inclusive Fitness Theory                    Reactively Heritable
Adaptive Problem                              Frequency Dependent Selection
Xenophobia                                       Restricted Sexual Strategy
By-Products of Adaptation                Unrestricted Mating Strategy
Evolutionary By-Products                 Psychopathy
Evolutionary Noise                           

Chapter Overview

This chapter provides students with an overview of evolutionary approaches to personality. The authors begin by introducing the key concepts of evolution by natural selection and evolution by sexual selection. They then discuss the role of genes in the context of inclusive fitness theory, noting that evolution occurs by differential gene reproduction. Next, the authors identify and discuss the three key products of the evolutionary process: Adaptations, by-products of adaptations, and noise or random variation. Adaptations are inherited solutions to the survival and reproductive problems faced by humans throughout human evolutionary history, and are the primary focus of modern evolutionary scientists, including evolutionary personality psychologists. The authors turn next to the premises of evolutionary psychology, which include presumptions that the adaptations of the mind are likely to be domain-specific, numerous, and functional—that is, that they have special function or solve specific adaptive problems. The authors then discuss the nature by which evolutionary hypotheses are tested empirically, distinguishing between general evolutionary theory, middle-level theories, and the specific hypotheses and derivative predictions that are the typical focus of empirical testing. The authors then discuss and provide examples of three levels of evolutionary psychological analysis—the level of human nature, or species-typical adaptations, sex differences, and individual differences. The authors conclude with a discussion of several limitations of evolutionary psychology, including the fact that modern conditions are sometimes different from ancestral conditions, and so what was adaptive in the past might not be adaptive in the present.

 

Learning Objectives

• Describe the key features of evolution by natural selection.

 

• Define and provide an example of an adaptation.

• Describe the key features of evolution by sexual selection. Differentiate between intrasexual competition and intersexual competition. Provide examples of each of these two types of sexual selection.

 

• Discuss the concept of “differential gene reproduction.”

• Describe “inclusive fitness theory.”

 

• Discuss and provide examples of the three key products of the evolutionary process—adaptations, by-products of adaptations, and noise or random variation.

• Identify and discuss the three key premises of evolutionary psychology.

 

• Discuss the different levels of evolutionary analysis, differentiating between general evolutionary theory, middle-level theories, and specific hypotheses and predictions.

• Differentiate between deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning, and discuss how modern evolutionary scientists use each strategy.

 

• Discuss how evolutionary psychologists approach the human nature level of analysis. Include in your discussion brief reviews of theory and research on the need to belong, helping and altruism, and universal emotions.

• Discuss how evolutionary psychologists approach the sex difference level of analysis. Include in your discussion brief reviews of theory and research on sex differences in aggression, jealousy, the desire for sexual variety, and mate preferences.

 

• Discuss how evolutionary psychologists approach the individual differences level of analysis. Include in your discussion a review of the three primary strategies for addressing individual differences: Environmental triggers of individual differences, adaptive self-assessment of heritable individual differences, and frequency-dependent strategic individual differences.

• Identify and discuss the key limitations of evolutionary perspectives on personality.

 

Lecture Topics and Lecture Suggestions

• Forgiveness or Breakup: Sex Differences in Responses to a Partner’s Infidelity (Shackelford, Buss, & Bennett, 2002). Students are typically exceptionally interested in research on infidelity. The topic of sex differences in reactions to a partner’s infidelity is particularly successful at maintaining student interest and involving students in active discussion. The work presented in Larsen and Buss focuses on emotional reactions to a partner’s infidelity, and specifically on sex differences in these reactions, with men reporting greater upset in response to a sexual infidelity and women reporting greater upset in response to an emotional infidelity. This work has recently been extended to the aftermath of an infidelity. What happens when a partner’s infidelity has been discovered? Two key options for the betrayed partner are to forgive the unfaithful partner and continue with the relationship, or to end the relationship with the betrayed partner. Shackelford, Buss, and Bennett (2002) investigated this question. This lecture presents the conduct and results of this research. Use this lecture as a springboard to encourage students to generate their own hypotheses about reactions to and consequences of a partner’s infidelity. Are sex differences always expected along the lines reported in the text and in this research, or might there be some circumstances in which we expect men and women to react similarly to each type of infidelity?

 

• Infidelities—sexual, emotional, or both—afflict many long-term romantic relationships
• When a person discovers a partner’s betrayal, a major decision faced is to
• Forgive the partner and remain together, or to
• Terminate the relationship
• Because men and women have confronted different adaptive problems over evolutionary history associated with different forms of infidelity, Shackelford et al. (in press) hypothesized the existence of sex differences in which aspects of infidelity would affect the likelihood of forgiveness or breakup
• The authors tested this hypothesis using forced-choice dilemmas
• Participants (N = 256) indicated
• How difficult it would be to forgive the partner and
• How likely they would be to break up with the partner, depending on the nature of the infidelity
• Results support the hypothesis that men, relative to women
• (a) Find it more difficult to forgive a sexual infidelity than an emotional infidelity, and
• (b) Are more likely to terminate a current relationship following a partner’s sexual infidelity than an emotional infidelity
• The authors close with a discussion that provides directions for future work on the determinants of breakup and the psychology of forgiveness

Reference:

Shackelford, T. K., Buss, D. M., & Bennett, K. (2002). Forgiveness or breakup: Sex differences in responses to a partner’s infidelity. Cognition and Emotion, 16, 299–307.

• Quality of Early Family Relationships and Individual Differences in the Timing of Pubertal Maturation in Girls (Ellis, McFadyen-Ketchum, Dodge, Pettit, & Bates, 1999). Evolutionary psychologists have only recently made substantial headway into individual differences. One area that Larsen and Buss discuss and for which evolutionary perspectives have provided a good deal of insight is in the relationships between early family environments and the sexual behavior of young adults who grow up in these environments. One controversial area of theory and research is the possible relationships between the young woman’s sexual behavior and whether her father was present during her early life. Students will find this topic interesting and accessible, and many will have come from backgrounds in which they did not reside full-time with their biological father. This lecture presents some of the most recent evidence for the relationships between father presence/absence and the timing of pubertal maturation in girls. Pubertal maturation, in turn, is a good predictor of the onset of sexual behavior. Use this lecture to engage students in a discussion about the underlying theory and what we, as a society, might do with the results, if anything. Be aware, however, that this is likely to be a controversial discussion, and help students to separate scholarly debate from raw emotional reactions and sentiments.

 

• Ellis et al. (1999) conducted an eight-year prospective study of 173 girls and their families
• The authors tested predictions from Belsky, Steinberg, & Draper’s (1991) evolutionary model of individual differences in pubertal timing
• This model suggests that more negative-coercive (or less positive-harmonious) family relationships in early childhood provoke earlier reproductive development in adolescence
• Consistent with the model, the following variables, assessed prior to kindergarten, predicted later pubertal timing by daughters in 7th grade:
• Father’s presence in the home
• More time spent by fathers in child care
• Greater supportiveness in the parental dyad
• More father-daughter affection, and
• More mother-daughter affection
• The positive dimension of family relationships, rather than the negative dimension, accounted for these relations
• In total, the quality of father’s investment in the family emerged as the most important feature of the proximal family environment relative to daughter’s pubertal timing

Reference:

Ellis, B. J., McFadyen-Ketchum, S., Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (1999). Quality of early family relationships and individual differences in the timing of pubertal maturation in girls: A longitudinal test of an evolutionary model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 387–401.

Classroom Activities and Demonstrations

 

• According to Larsen and Buss, the evolutionary process produces three key products: Adaptations, by-products of adaptations, and noise or random variation. Distribute Activity Handout 8-1 (“Products of the Evolutionary Process”). Give students about five minutes to complete this handout. Ask volunteers to provide their definition of each of the products of the evolutionary process. Clarify these definitions as needed. Use this exercise as a springboard for discussing each of the three products of the evolutionary process, and highlight for students that the focus of modern evolutionary science is on adaptations. Ask students why the focus is on adaptations, rather than on by-products of adaptations or noise. Finally, challenge students to think of examples of adaptations, by-products of these adaptations, and noise or random variation. These are deceptively simple concepts, and students will benefit greatly by active discussion and guidance by the instructor.

• Larsen and Buss review recent theoretical and empirical work on sex differences in upset to a partner’s infidelity. This work reveals that men are more upset by a partner’s sexual infidelity, whereas women are more upset by a partner’s emotional infidelity. We can ask different but related questions, which are (a) which type of infidelity (sexual or emotional) is more likely to be forgiven and (b) which type of infidelity is more likely to cause the betrayed person to end the relationship? Shackelford, Buss, and Bennett (2002) asked these questions, and addressed them by presenting their participants with the dilemmas shown in Activity Handout 8-2. Distribute Activity Handout 8-2 (“Reactions to a Partner’s Infidelity”). Give students about five minutes to complete the handout. Ask students to volunteer their responses, beginning with the first question and moving through to the final question. Ask students to generate predictions about possible sex differences in responses to these questions. Be sure that the students clearly specify why they predict a particular difference (or the absence of a difference). Finally, conclude the discussion by revealing the results of Shackelford et al. (2002), which are that men are more likely than women to forgive a sexual infidelity compared with an emotional infidelity, whereas women are more likely than men to forgive an emotional infidelity compared with a sexual infidelity.

 

• Previous research has indicated that men and women differ in the qualities or traits they prefer to have in a long-term mate. Buss (1989) investigated mate preferences in a study of 37 cultures. Activity Handout 8-3 presents part of the measure completed by more than 10,000 participants in Buss’s (1989) study. Distribute Activity Handout 8-3 (“Factors in Choosing a Mate”). Give students about five minutes to complete the handout. Ask students to volunteer which mate preferences they rated as indispensable. Then ask students to volunteer which mate preferences they rated as irrelevant or unimportant. Finally, ask students to volunteer which mate preferences they rated between indispensable and irrelevant. Review for students the key findings from Buss’s (1989) study regarding sex differences in mate preferences. Across cultures, for example, men more than women value good looks, whereas women more than men value good financial prospects. Ask students to discuss why these sex differences are consistent with a modern evolutionary psychological perspective.

 

Questions for In-Class Discussion

• According to Larsen and Buss, there are several levels of evolutionary psychological analysis. These are the levels of general evolutionary theory inclusive fitness theory, middle-level theories, and hypotheses and derivative predictions. Ask students to discuss each of these levels of analysis, in turn, beginning with the level of general evolutionary theory. Ask students to identify the level at which most evolutionary psychological science proceeds. Guide students to the conclusion that evolutionary psychological science is conducted just as other areas of science are conducted. In addition, guide students to the conclusion that good evolutionary psychological hypotheses and predictions are those that are testable and falsifiable, and that this is true for any theoretical perspective.

 

• According to Larsen and Buss, under what conditions do modern evolutionary scientists expect to see sex differences and under what conditions do they expect to see sex similarities? Guide students to the conclusion that, according to modern evolutionary psychology, males and females are expected to be the same or similar in all those domains where the sexes have faced the same or similar adaptive problems. Ask students to identify a few areas in which we might expect sex differences, and a few areas in which we might expect sex similarities. Help students to identify the relevant adaptive problems that are implicit in their examples. In addition, ask students to identify what mechanisms or traits might have evolved to solve the adaptive problems suggested by their examples.

• Ask students to discuss what they see as the strengths and limitations of an evolutionary psychological approach to human nature, in general, and to human personality, in particular. Allow students relative freedom in this discussion, as they will benefit by actively supporting and dissenting from the perspective as presented by Larsen and Buss. Challenge students to consider the possibility that we will never have a complete understanding of human nature and human personality if we do not recognize the evolutionary history of humans, including the adaptive problems that ancestral humans recurrently faced.

 

Critical Thinking Essays

 

• Larsen and Buss state that all of us come from a long and unbroken line of ancestors who accomplished two critical tasks: They survived to reproductive age, and they reproduced. Explain in your own words what Larsen and Buss mean. How do we know this? In what sense must this be fact rather than a hypothesis?

• According to Larsen and Buss, what are the three products of the evolutionary process? Compare and contrast these three products and provide examples of each. How can knowing about these three products help us better understand human personality?

 

• In your own words, identify and discuss the three premises of modern evolutionary psychology, as discussed by Larsen and Buss. How does each premise help us better understand human psychology and personality?

 

Research Papers

• According to Darwin, and as reviewed by Larsen and Buss, sexual selection takes two forms: intrasexual selection and intersexual selection. First, and in your own words, define each of these two forms of sexual selection. Second, provide an example of each, but use examples that were not provided by Larsen and Buss. Third, provide a brief discussion of the relationships between intrasexual selection and intersexual selection. Finally, conduct a review of the psychological research literature. Identify four articles published in the past five years, two of which provide an evolutionary psychological analysis of intrasexual competition, and two of which provide an evolutionary psychological analysis of intersexual selection. For each article, summarize what the researchers investigated, how they investigated it, and what they found.

 

• Two cornerstones of modern evolutionary psychology are adaptive problems and evolved psychological mechanisms. First, define each of these terms in your own words. Second, discuss the relationships between adaptive problems and evolved psychological mechanisms. Next, conduct a review of the psychological research literature. Identify three articles published in the past five years that provide an evolutionary psychological analysis of a specific adaptive problem and a proposed evolved psychological solution. For each article, identify the adaptive problem that is being investigated and the psychological mechanism that is proposed to have evolved as a solution to that adaptive problem. If the authors do not clearly specify the adaptive problem and evolved psychological mechanism, use what you have learned about evolutionary psychology to identify these. Finally, and for each article, summarize what the researchers investigated, how they investigated it, and what they found.

• Evolutionary psychologists conduct research at each of the three levels of personality analysis—human nature, sex differences, and individual differences. Conduct a review of the psychological research literature and identify three articles published in the last five years that address one and only one of these three levels of analysis. For each article, summarize what the researchers investigated, how they investigated it, and what they found. Finally, address how the research presented in each article might be profitably extended to each of the remaining two levels of personality analysis. How might this research be extended to the remaining two levels of analysis, and what results might you expect, and why?

 

Recent Research Articles and Other Scholarly Readings

Bereczkei, T. (2000). Evolutionary psychology: A new perspective in the behavioral sciences. European Psychologist, 5, 175–190.

Bjorklund, D. F., & Pellegrini, A. D. (2000). Child development and evolutionary psychology. Child Development, 71, 1687–1708.

Bleske, A. L., & Buss, D. M. (2000). Can men and women be just friends? Personal Relationships, 7, 131–151.

Boyer, P. (2000). Evolutionary psychology and cultural transmission. American Behavioral Scientist, 43, 987–1000.

Buss, D. M., Shackelford, T. K., Choe, J., et al. (2000). Distress about mating rivals. Personal Relationships, 7, 235–243.

Buss, D. M., Shackelford, T. K., Kirkpatrick, L. A., & Larsen, R. J. (2001). A half century of mate preferences: The cultural evolution of values. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 63, 491–503.

Buss, D. M., Shackelford, T. K., & LeBlanc, G. J. (2000). Number of children desired and preferred spousal age difference: Context-specific mate preference patterns across 37 cultures. Evolution and Human Behavior, 21, 323–331.

Cervone, D. (2000). Evolutionary psychology and explanation in personality psychology: How do we know which module to invoke? American Behavioral Scientist, 43, 1001–1014.

Duchaine, B., Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (2001). Evolutionary psychology and the brain. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 11, 225–230.

Euler, H. A., Hoier, S., & Rohde, P. A. (2001). Relationship-specific closeness of intergenerational family ties: Findings from evolutionary psychology and implications for models of cultural transmission. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32, 147–158.

Fiske, A. P. (2000). Complementarity theory: Why human social capacities evolved to
require cultural complements. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4, 76–94.

Haselton, M. G., & Buss, D. M. (2000). Error management theory: A new perspective on biases in cross-sex mind reading. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 81–91.

Hazan, C., & Diamond, L. M. (2000). The place of attachment in human mating. Review of General Psychology, 4, 186–204.

Hinsz, V. B., Matz, D. C., & Patience, R. A. (2001). Does women’s hair signal reproductive potential? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 166–172.

Kenrick, Douglas T. (2001). Evolutionary psychology, cognitive science, and dynamical systems: Building an integrative paradigm. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10, 13–17.

Ketelaar, T., & Ellis, B. J. (2000). Are evolutionary explanations unfalsifiable? Evolutionary psychology and the Lakatosian philosophy of science. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 1–21.

Lalumiere, M. L., Harris, G. T., & Rice, M. E. (2001). Psychopathy and developmental instability. Evolution and Human Behavior, 22, 75–92.

Marsella, A. J., Dubanoski, J., Hamada, W. C., et al. (2000). The measurement of personality across cultures: Historical, conceptual, and methodological issues and considerations. American Behavioral Scientist, 44, 41–62.

O’Connor, L. E., Berry, J. W., Weiss, J., et al. (2000). Survivor guilt, submissive behaviour, and evolutionary theory: The down-side of winning in social comparison. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 73, 519–530.

Rode, C., & Wang, X. T. (2000). Risk-sensitivity decision-making examined within an evolutionary framework. American Behavioral Scientist, 43, 926–939.

Rozin, P. (2000). Evolution and adaption in the understanding of behavior, culture, and mind. American Behavioral Scientist, 43, 970–986.

Saad, G., & Gill, T. (2000). Applications of evolutionary psychology in marketing. Psychology and Marketing, 17, 1005–1034.

Shackelford, T. K., Buss, D. M., & Peters, J. (2000). Wife killing: Risk to women as a function of age. Violence and Victims, 15, 273–282.

Shackelford, T. K., Weekes-Shackelford, V. A., LeBlanc, G. J., et al. (2000). Female coital orgasm and male attractiveness. Human Nature, 11, 299–306.

Todd, P. M. (2000). The ecological rationality of mechanisms evolved to make up minds. American Behavioral Scientist, 43, 940–956.

Wade, T. J. (2000). Evolutionary theory and self-perception: Sex differences in body
esteem predictors of self-perceived physical and sexual attractiveness and self-esteem. International Journal of Psychology, 35, 36-45.

Wettlaufer, J. (2000). The jus primae noctis as a male power display: A review of historic sources with evolutionary interpretation. Evolution and Human Behavior, 21, 111–123.

Activity Handout 8-1:

Products of the Evolutionary Process

Instructions: According to Larsen and Buss, there are three key products of the evolutionary process: adaptations, by-products or adaptations, and noise or random variation. In the spaces provided below, provide a definition, in your own words, for each of these three key products of the evolutionary process.

• Adaptations:

 

 

 

 

 

• By-products of adaptations:

 

 

 

 

 

• Noise or random variation:

 

 

 

 

 

 

Activity Handout 8-2:
Reactions to a Partner’s Infidelity

Instructions: Please think of a serious or committed romantic relationship that you have had in the past, that you are currently having, or that you would like to have. Imagine that you discover that the person with whom you’ve been seriously involved became interested in someone else. For each question, please circle only one answer, (A) or (B).

• Which would upset or distress you more?         

 

• Imagining your partner enjoying passionate sexual intercourse with that other person.
• Imagining your partner forming a deep emotional attachment to that other person.

• Which would upset or distress you more?

 

• Imagining your partner trying different sexual positions with that other person.
• Imagining your partner falling in love with that other person.

• Which action would be more difficult for you to forgive?

 

• Your partner has passionate sexual intercourse with that other person.
• Your partner becomes deeply emotionally attached to that other person.

• For which action would you be more likely to break-up with your partner?

 

• Your partner has passionate sexual intercourse with that other person.
• Your partner becomes deeply emotionally attached to that other person.

• Which aspect of your partner’s involvement would be more difficult for you to forgive?

 

• Your partner’s sexual intercourse with that other person.
• Your partner’s emotional attachment to that other person.

• Which aspect of your partner’s involvement would be more likely to lead you to break-up with your partner?

 

• Your partner’s sexual intercourse with that other person.
• Your partner’s emotional attachment to that other person.

Activity Handout 8-3:

Factors in Choosing a Mate

Instructions: Please evaluate the following factors in choosing a mate. If you consider the factor:

indispensable, give it...                      3 points
important, but not indispensable...     2 points
desirable, but not very important...    1 point
irrelevant or unimportant...                0 points

_____(1) Good cook & housekeeper                        _____(10) Desire for home & children
_____(2) Pleasing disposition                                               _____(11) Favorable social status or rating
_____(3) Sociability                                                  _____(12) Good looks
_____(4) Similar educational background                _____(13) Similar religious background
_____(5) Refinement, neatness                                 _____(14) Ambition & industriousness
_____(6) Good financial prospects                           _____(15) Similar political background
_____(7) Chastity (no previous experience              _____(16) Mutual attraction—love
in sexual intercourse)
_____(8) Dependable character                                _____(17) Good health
_____(9) Emotional stability & maturity                  _____(18) Education & intelligence