Chapter 15

Global Maritime Expansion Before 1450
The Pacific Ocean

1. Malay Peninsula crossed water>islands of the East Indies, New Guinea, the Melanesian and Polynesian islands, the Marquesas, New Zealand, and other Pacific islands out to Hawaii.
1. 1300, Polynesian culture 2,200 miles of South America.
2. result of planned voyages undertaken to establish colonies.
3. Polynesian mariners navigated by the stars and by their observations of ocean currents and evidence of land.

The Indian Ocean

1. Malayo-Indonesians colonized the island of Madagascar in voyages that continued through 15th century.
2. Arab seafarers used regular monsoon winds to establish trade routes in the Indian Ocean.
1. Flourished when the rise of Islam created new markets and new networks of Muslim traders.
3. Ming dynasty sponsored series of voyages to the Indian Ocean b/w 1405 and 1433.
1. Grand scale, fleets of over sixty large treasure ships and hundreds of smaller support vessels.
2. Carried out trade in luxury goods including silk and precious metals,
3. Stimulated diplomatic relations with various African and Asian states.
4. Not profitable & opposition in court, ended 1433.

The Atlantic Ocean

1. Warmer centuries of early Middle Ages
1. Vikings, navigating by the stars and the seas, explored and settled Iceland, Greenland, and Newfoundland (Vinland). When cold returned 1200, the northern Greenland and Newfoundland were abandoned.
2. Southern Europeans and Africans attempted to explore the Atlantic in the 13th & 14th centuries.
1. Voyagers from Genoa in 1291 and from Mali in the 1300s set out into the Atlantic but did not return.
2. Genoese and Portuguese explorers discovered and settled the Madeiras, the Azores, and the Canaries in the 14th century.
3. Arawak from South America colonized Lesser and Greater Antilles by 1000. The Carib followed, first taking over Arawak settlements in the Lesser Antilles and then, in the late fifteenth century, raiding the Greater Antilles.

European Expansion, 1400–1550
Motives for Exploration

1. The Iberian kingdoms sponsored exploration for
1. The revival of trade
2. The struggle with Islam for control of the Mediterranean
3. Curiosity about the outside world
4. Alliances between rulers and merchants.
2. The city-states of northern Italy did not explore Atlantic trade routes because
1. Established a system of alliances and trade with the Muslims–access to Asian goods.
2. Italian ships could not stand up to the violent weather of the Atlantic.
3. The Iberian kingdoms had centuries of warfare with Muslims, and not much Mediterranean trade
1. But had advanced shipbuilding and cannon technology.
2. Open to new geographical knowledge and had exceptional leaders.

Portuguese Voyages

1. Gained more knowledge of the sources of gold and slaves south of the Sahara
1. Forces led by Prince Henry captured North African caravan city of Ceuta.
2. Prince Henry (“the Navigator”) sponsored a research and navigation institute at Sagres to collect information about and send expeditions to the African lands south of North Africa.
1. Staff studied and improved navigational instruments, including the compass and the astrolabe.
2. Designed a new vessel for exploration.
2. Learned to pick up the prevailing westerly winds that would blow them back to Portugal, contributing important knowledge about oceanic wind patterns to the maritime community.
3. Initially financed by income from the properties held by Prince Henry’s Order of Christ.
1. In the 1440s, began to produce a financial return, first from trade in slaves, and then from the gold trade.
4. Beginning in 1469, the process of exploration picked up speed as private commercial enterprises began to get involved.
1. The Lisbon merchant Fernao Gomes sent expeditions discovered and developed the island of São Tomé and explored the Gold Coast.
2. Bartolomeu Dias and Vasco da Gama rounded the tip of Africa and established contact with India, thus laying the basis for Portugal’s maritime trading empire.

Spanish Voyages

1. When Christopher Columbus approached the Spanish crown with his project of finding a new route to Asia, the Portuguese had already established their route to the Indian Ocean. The King and Queen of Spain agreed to fund a modest voyage of discovery, and Columbus set out in 1492 with letters of introduction to Asian rulers and an Arabic interpreter.
2. After three voyages, Columbus was still certain that he had found Asia, but other Europeans realized that he had discovered entirely new lands. These new discoveries led the Spanish and the Portuguese to sign the Treaty of Tordesillas, in which they divided the world between them along a line drawn down the center of the North Atlantic.
3. Ferdinand Magellan’s voyage across the Pacific confirmed Portugal’s claim to the Molucca Islands and established the Spanish claim to the Philippines.

Encounters with Europe, 1450–1550
Western Africa

1. During the fifteenth century, many Africans welcomed the Portuguese and profited from their trade, in which they often held the upper hand. In return for their gold, Africans received from the Portuguese merchants a variety of Asian, African, and European goods, including firearms. Interaction between the Portuguese and African rulers varied from place to place.
2. The oba (king) of the powerful kingdom of Benin sent an ambassador to Portugal and established a royal monopoly on trade with the Portuguese. Benin exported a number of goods, including some slaves, and its rulers showed a mild interest in Christianity. After 1538, Benin purposely limited its contact with the Portuguese, declining to receive missionaries and closing the market in male slaves.
3. The kingdom of Kongo had fewer goods to export and consequently relied more on the slave trade. When the Christian King Afonso I lost his monopoly over the slave trade, his power was weakened and some of his subjects rose in revolt.

Eastern Africa

1. In Eastern Africa, some Muslim states were suspicious of the Portuguese, while others welcomed the Portuguese as allies in their struggles against their neighbors. On the Swahili Coast, Malindi befriended the Portuguese and was spared when the Portuguese attacked and looted many of the other Swahili city-states in 1505.
2. Christian Ethiopia sought and gained Portuguese support in its war against the Muslim forces of Adal. The Muslims were defeated, but Ethiopia was unable to make a long-term alliance with the Portuguese because the Ethiopians refused to transfer their religious loyalty from the patriarch of Alexandria to the Roman pope.

Indian Ocean States

1. When Vasco da Gama>Calicut in 1498, he made a very poor impression with his simple gifts. Nonetheless, the Portuguese were determined to control the Indian Ocean trade, and their superior ships and firepower gave them the ability to do so.
2. To assert their control, the Portuguese bombarded the Swahili city-states in 1505, captured the Indian port of Goa in 1510, and took Hormuz in 1515. Extending their reach eastward, Portuguese forces captured Malacca in 1511 and set up a trading post at Macao in southern China in 1557.
3. The Portuguese used their control over the major ports to require that all spices be carried in Portuguese ships and that all other ships purchase Portuguese passports and pay customs duties to the Portuguese.
4. Reactions: The Mughal emperors took no action, while the Ottomans resisted and were able at least to maintain superiority in the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. Some smaller states cooperated with the Portuguese; others tried evasion and resistance.
5. The Portuguese never gained complete control of the Indian Ocean trade, but they did dominate it enough to bring themselves considerable profit and to break the Italian city-states’ monopoly on pepper.

The Americas

1. Portuguese built a maritime trading empire in Africa and Asia, the Spanish built a territorial empire in the Americas. Difference: isolation of Amerindian communities and their lack of resistance to Old World diseases.
2. The Arawak were an agricultural people who mined and worked gold but did not trade it over long distances and had no iron. Spanish wars killed tens of thousands of Arawak and undermined their economy; by 1502, the remaining Arawak of Hispaniola were forced to serve as laborers for the Spanish.
3. What the Spanish did in the Antilles was an extension of Spanish actions against the Muslims in the previous centuries: defeating non-Christians and putting them and their land under Christian control. The actions of conquistadors in other parts of the Caribbean followed the same pattern.
4. On the mainland, Hernan Cortes relied on native allies, cavalry charges, steel swords, and cannon to defeat the forces of the Aztec Empire and capture the Tenochtitlan. The conquest was also aided by the spread of smallpox among the Aztecs. Similarly, Francisco Pizarro’s conquest of the Inca Empire was made possible by the dissatisfaction of the Inca Empire’s recently conquered peoples and by Spanish cannon and steel swords.

Trend

In chapter fifteen of The Earth and Its People: A Global History, the overall theme is that the century between 1450 and 1550 was a major turning point in world history. During those years, European explorers opened new long-distance trade routes across the world’s three major oceans, and for the first time, established regular contact among inhabitants of all of the world’s continents.
Before 1500, most of the overland and maritime expansion had come from Asia, Asia had also been home to the most powerful states and the richest trading networks. The Iberians set out on their voyages of exploration to reach Eastern markets, and their success managed to allow the West to gradually become the world’s largest center of power, wealth, and innovation. Overall, the maritime revolution created new contacts, alliances, and conflicts.
Other travelers wanted to travel down the African Coast because they believed they would discover a passage around Africa to the rich trade of the Indian Ocean. In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias was the first Portuguese explorer to round the southern tip of Africa and enter the Indian Ocean. From 1497 to 1498, another Portuguese expedition, this time led by Vasco de Gama, sailed around Africa and reached India. In the year 1500, Pedro Alvarez Cabral’s ships came upon the eastern coast of South America, which laid the basis for Portugal’s later claim to Brazil. He had intended on swinging to the west so that the South Atlantic winds would help carry his ships to Southern Africa and on to India, but that never occurred. By this time, the trade of needed goods was heavily flowing between the different nations.
Between the years 1492 and 1506, a Genoese merchant by the name of Christopher Columbus established the existence of what he thought was a new world across the Atlantic Ocean, whose existence few in the “old world” Eurasia and Africa had ever suspected. Columbus, however, refused to accept that he had found unknown continents and people, insisting that he had succeeded in his goal of finding a shorter route to the Indian Ocean than the one that the Portuguese had previously found.
Another important voyage, Ferdinand Magellan’s, laid out the basis for the Spanish colonization of the Philippine Islands after 1564.
Although Columbus failed to find a new route to the East, the consequences of his voyages for European expansion were momentous. Those who followed in his footsteps laid the basis for Spain’s large colonial empires in the Americas and for the empires of other European nations. In turn, these empires promoted, among the four Atlantic continents, the growth of a major new trading network whose importance rivaled and eventually surpassed that of the Indian Ocean network. The more immediately important consequence was Portugal’s entry into the Indian Ocean, which quickly led to a major European presence and profit. Both the eastward and the westward voyages of exploration marked a tremendous expansion of Europe’s role in world history.