The Importance of Homer to Ancient Greek History
No other texts in the Western imagination occupy as central a position in the self-definition of Western culture as the two epic poems of Homer, the Iliad and the Odyssey. They both concern the great defining moment of Greek culture, the Trojan War. Whether or not this war really occurred, or occurred as the Greeks narrate it, is a relatively unanswerable question. We know that such a war did take place around a city that quite likely was Troy that Troy was destroyed utterly, but beyond that it's all speculation. This war, however, fired the imaginations of the Greeks and became the defining cultural moment in their history. Technically, the war wasn't fought by "Greeks" in the classical sense, it was fought by the Myceneaens; the Greek culture that we call "classical" is actually derived from a different group of Greeks, the Dorians and Ionians. However, the Greeks saw the Trojan War as the first moment in history when the Greeks came together as one people with a common purpose. This unification, whether it was myth or not, gave the later Greeks a sense of national or cultural identity, despite the fact that their governments were small, disunified city-states. Since the Greeks regarded the Trojan War as the defining moment in the establishment of "Greek character," they were obsessed about the events of that great war and told them repeatedly with great variety; as the Greek idea of cultural identity changed, so did their stories about the Trojan War.
If the Greeks regarded the Trojan War as the defining moment of their culture, they did so because of the poetry of Homer. It would not be unfair to regard the Homeric poems as the single most important texts in Greek culture. While the Greeks all gained their collective identity from the Trojan War, that collective identity was concentrated in the values, ethics, and narrative of Homer's epic poems. Just as the Greeks were obsessed about the Trojan War, they were equally obsessed about the Homeric poems, returning to them over and over again, particularly in times of cultural crisis. The Greeks didn't believe that the Homeric poems were sacred in any way, or even flawless history. For most of Greek history, Homer comes under fire for his unflattering portrayal of Greek gods. The Greeks understood that the poems were poetry, and in the Hellenistic period came to the understanding that the poems had been deeply corrupted over the ages. So unlike most ancient cultures, which rooted collective identity in religious texts of some
sort, the Greeks turned to literature.
As the Trojan War was the product of Mycenean culture, the Homeric poems were the product of the Greek Dark Ages. Whatever happened at Troy, the events were probably so captivating, that the Greeks continued to narrate the stories long after they had abandoned their cities and abandoned writing. The history of the war was preserved from mouth to mouth, from person to person; it may be that the stories of the Trojan War were the dominant cultural artifact of the Greek Dark Ages. These stories probably began as short tales of isolated events and heroes; eventually a profession of story telling was established—classical scholars call this new professional a "bard." This new professional began combining the stories into larger narratives; as the narratives grew, the technique of story-telling changed as well. Whereas early bards probably memorized their stories with great exactitude, the later bards, telling much longer stories, probably improvised much of their lines following sophisticated rules. Maybe. We have evidence from the
Classical age in Greece of people memorizing the complete poetry of Homer word
for word (over 25,000 lines of poetry); it may be possible that the Homeric poems
were memorized with more exactitude than scholars believe. No matter what the case, by the end of the Greek Dark Ages, these bards or story-tellers were probably the cultural center of Greek society; their status improved greatly as Greeks began to slowly urbanize.
On an average night in the late Greek Dark Ages, a community, probably the wealthiest people, would settle in for an evening's entertainment. The professional storyteller would sing the stories of the Trojan War and its Greek heroes; these songs would be the Greek equivalent of a mini-series, for the stories were so long that they would take days to complete. The Greeks believed that the greatest of these story-tellers was a blind man named Homer, and that he sung ten epic poems about the Trojan War, of which only two survived (although the Greeks seem to have known them). As a group these poems told the entire history of the Trojan War; each poem, however, only covered a small part of that history. Many classicists believe that the two surviving Homeric epics (probably the only Homeric epics) were in fact composed by several individuals; in the absence of any evidence to the contrary, most classicists accept the overall Greek idea of a single author. Whatever the compositional history of the poems, they were set down into writing within a few decades of their composition; the growing urbanization of Greek society led to the rediscovery of writing (learned from the Phoenicians this time), and the Homeric poems were committed to writing very quickly. Time and transmission added much extraneous material to the poems, but in their basic character and outline they seem to be the original compositions.
The Iliad is the story of a brief event in the ninth year of the war (which the Greeks claim lasted ten years); the great hero Achilles is offended when the leader of the Greeks, Agamemnon, takes a slave girl Achilles has been awarded. Achilles withdraws from the battle and prays to his mother, Thetis, a goddess, to turn the tide of battle against the Greeks. The gods grant Achilles his prayer, and he does not return to battle until his best friend is killed by the great Trojan hero, Hector. Achilles throws himself into the battle, fights Hector, and kills him; in a final gesture of contempt, he drags Hectors lifeless body around the walls of Troy. If there is a "theme" to the epic (and one should resist simplifying large and complex literature), it is "Achilles choice." Achilles has been offered a choice: either he can be a great and famous hero in war and die young (Achilles does die in Troy when a poison arrow strikes him in the ankle), or the can live a long, happy life without any lasting fame whatsoever. Although Achilles initially chooses not to die young, the death of his friend forces him to make the choice that will make him famous for all time, but tragically dead at a young age.
The Odyssey is the story of the homecoming of another of the great Greek heroes at Troy, Odysseus. Unlike Achilles, Odysseus is not famous for his great strength or bravery, but for his ability to deceive and trick (it is Odysseus's idea to take Troy by offering the citizens a large wooden horse filled, unbeknownst to the Trojans, with Greek soldiers). He is the anthropos polytropos , the "man of many ways," or the "man of many tricks." His homecoming has been delayed for ten years because of the anger of the gods; finally, in the tenth year, he is allowed to go home. He hasn't been misspending his time, though; for most of the ten years he has been living on an island with the goddess Kalypso, who is madly in love with him. Odysseus, like Achilles, is offered a choice: he may either live on the island with Kalypso and be immortal like the gods, or he may return to his wife and his country and be mortal like the rest of us. He chooses to return, and much of the rest of the work is a long exposition on what it means to be "mortal." If the Odyssey has a discernible theme, it is the nature of mortal life, why any human being would, if offered the chance to be a god, still choose to be mortal. This choice becomes
particularly problematic when Odysseus, in Book XI, meets the ghost of Achilles in the Underworld; Odysseus remarks to Achilles how all the shades of the dead must worship and serve Achilles, but Achilles replies that he would rather be the meanest and most obscure slave of the poorest landholder than be the most famous of the dead. If being dead is so awful, what is it about being human that makes up for the infinite suffering that attends our deaths? As part of this question concerning the nature of human life, much of the book deals with the nature of human civilization and human savagery. The question also deepens in the latter half of the poem; while the first half of the epic deals with the question of the value of a mortal life, the last half of the epic introduces the question of the value of an anonymous human life. What value can be attached to a life that will be
forgotten at its conclusion?
The Greeks in general regard Homer's two epics as the highest cultural achievement of their people, the defining moment in Greek culture which set the basic Greek character in stone. Throughout antiquity, both in Greece and Rome, everything tended to be compared to these two works; events in history made sense when put in the light of the events narrated in these two works. As a result, then, these two epics are the focal point of Greek values and the Greek world view despite all its evolution and permutations through the centuries following their composition.
There are two very important words repeatedly used throughout the Homeric epics: honor (timé ) and virtue or greatness (areté ). The latter term is perhaps the most reiterated cultural and moral value in Ancient Greece and means something like achieving, morally and otherwise, your greatest potential as a human being. The reward for great honor and virtue is fame (kleos ), which is what guarantees meaning and value to one's life. Dying without fame (akleos ) is generally considered a disaster, and the warriors of the Homeric epics commit the most outrageous deeds to avoid dying in obscurity or infamy (witness Odysseus's absurd insistence on telling Polyphemos his name even though this will bring
disaster on him and his men in the Polyphemos episode). The passage from Odyssey XI discussed above presents Achilles's final judgement on kleos and its value when he tells Odysseus that he would rather be alive and the most obscure human on earth than dead and famous.
Richard Hooker
Washington State University
Source: http://www.arrowheadschools.org/faculty/tower/Homerand%20Ancient%20Greek%20History%20Article.doc
Web site to visit: http://www.arrowheadschools.org
Author of the text: indicated on the source document of the above text
CHAPTER 5 – Test Bank
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. Greek history first becomes well-documented around
a. 1200 B.C.
b. 1000 B.C.
c. 900 B.C.
d. 800 B.C.
e. 450 B.C.
Answer: d
2. The Greek alphabet came from
a. Egypt.
b. Mycenae.
c. Crete.
d. Phoenicia.
e. Syria.
Answer: d
3. The Pythian Games originated at
a. Delos.
b. Olympia.
c. Athens.
d. Delphi.
e. Pylos.
Answer: d
4. “Know Thyself” was inscribed in stone at
a. Athens.
b. Olympia.
c. Delphi.
d. Delos.
e. Eleusis.
Answer: c
5. Apollo’s sacred island was
a. Thera.
b. Crete.
c. Delphi.
d. Delos.
e. Atlantis.
Answer: d
6. An oracle was a
a. temple.
b. shrine.
c. altar.
d. priest.
e. magician.
Answer: d
7. Which of the following was NOT a famous woman in ancient Greece?
a. Sappho of Lesbos.
b. Iaia of Kyzikos.
c. Aspasia.
d. Artemisia.
Answer: d
8. Greek Geometric art was seen in the
a. 9th century B.C.
b. 7th century B.C.
d. 6th century B.C.
d. 5th century B.C.
Answer: a
9. The lively, rectilinear meander patterns circling the body of a vase is typical of
a. changes from the Archaic to Hellenistic style.
b. the Geometric style.
c. the Classical style.
d. the Orientalizing style.
Answer: b
10. Black-figure pottery is from the
a. Geometric period.
b. late Classical period.
c. Archaic or early Classical period.
d. Hellenistic period.
Answer: c
11. A nude standing figure of a young man is known in Greek art as a(n)
a. kore.
b. entasis.
c. lapith.
d. kouros.
Answer: d
12. A Greek two-handled storage jar is known as a(n)
a. hydria.
b. kylix.
c. krater.
d. amphora.
Answer: d
13. A Greek drinking cup was called a(n)
a. krater.
b. amphora.
c. lekythos.
d. kylix.
Answer: d
14. The Classical Greek style can best be described as
a. stylized and organic.
b. stylized and idealized.
c. figurative and non-representational.
d. idealized but non-figurative.
e. naturalistic but idealized.
Answer: e
15. Which best describes Greek government during the Classical period?
a. democracy
b. autocracy
c. tyranny
d. monarchy
e. aristocracy
Answer: a
16. The main Greek media used by sculptors were
a. bronze and iron.
b. marble and terracotta.
c. terracotta and bronze.
d. bronze and marble.
e. gold and marble.
Answer: d
17. Which of the following is NOT a Greek god or goddess?
a. Ares
b. Artemis
c. Hestia
d. Poseidon
e. Venus
Answer: e
18. Which of the following is NOT a correct pairing of Greek god with its Roman counterpart?
a. Zeus and Jupiter
b. Dionysos and Bacchus
c. Demeter and Ceres
d. Hades and Hebe
e. Athena and Minerva
Answer: d
19. Which of the following do NOT belong together?
a. Zeus – thunderbolt
b. Juno – peacock
c. Hephaistos – hearth
d. Neptune – trident
e. Hermes – caduceus
Answer: c
20. Which of the following did NOT take part in the Trojan War?
a. Achilles
b. Ajax
c. Odysseus
d. Sophokles
e. Agamemnon
Answer: d
21. Which of the following is NOT a correct definition?
a. hydria – water jar
b. amphora – storage jar
c. krater – flask for pouring oil
d. kylix – drinking cup
e. oenochoe – jug for pouring wine
Answer: c
22. Which do NOT belong together?
a. Exekias – Geometric style
b. Myron – Early Classical style
c. Polykleitos – Classical style
d. Lysippos – fourth century B.C.
e. Phidias – Classical style
Answer: a
23. Which was NOT a technique or process used by the Greeks?
a. lost-wax
b. black-figure
c. red-figure
d. white ground
e. mummification
Answer: e
24. “Classical” means
a. old-fashioned and valuable.
b. traditional and of high quality.
c. out-of-date and trite.
d. traditional and stylized.
e. idealized and valuable.
Answer: b
25. Contrapposto is
a. a twist at the neck.
b. a counter position.
c. a twist at the waist.
d. stepping forward.
e. standing at attention.
Answer: c
26. The earliest example of the use of contrapposto was in the sculpture of the
a. Kouros from Tenea.
b. Kritios Boy.
c. Laocoön.
d. Perikles.
Answer: b
27. The Riace bronzes were found in
a. Riace.
b. a cave.
c. the sea.
d. a grave.
e. a temple.
Answer: c
28. Which do NOT belong together?
a. volute, shaft, base, flutes
b. abacus, volute, base, frieze
c. metope, triglyph, abacus, echinus
d. abacus, volute, echinus, metope
e. stylobate, drum, echinus, metope
Answer: d
29. Which set is correct?
a. Nike Temple (427–424 B.C.)
b. Parthenon (439–419 B.C.)
c. Erechtheum (421–405 B.C.)
d. Propylaea (480–450 B.C.)
Answer: a
30. The general who commissioned the Parthenon was
a. Alkiabiades.
b. Sophokles.
c. Herodotos.
d. Xenophon.
e. Perikles.
Answer: e
31. The supervisor of the sculptural decorative work of the Parthenon was
a. Praxiteles.
b. Polykleitos.
c. Myron.
d. Phidias.
Answer: d
32. To the Greeks, “barbarians” were
a. cannibals.
b. Persians.
c. Egyptians.
d. Scythians.
e. foreigners.
Answer: e
33. Which is NOT part of the Parthenon plan?
a. naos
b. treasury
c. pronaos
d. propylaea
e. peristyle
Answer: d
34. What subject was portrayed on the frieze around the Parthenon?
a. the Great Panathenaic procession
b. the Great Dionysiac procession
c. the labors of Herakles
d. the Battle of Gods and Giants
Answer: a
35. The Parthenon metopes represented
a. the battle between Greeks and Trojans.
b. the battle between Lapiths and Centaurs.
c. the battle between the gods and Titans.
d. the battle between Greeks and Amazons.
e. All these answers are correct.
Answer: e
36. Which is NOT a correct pairing?
a. pediment – triangle
b. metope – trapezoid
c. triglyph – vertical
d. shaft – cylinder
e. architrave – rectangle
Answer: b
37. Which is NOT an aspect of Athena?
a. virginity
b. victory
c. fertility
d. war
e. wisdom
Answer: c
38. The statue of Athena in the Parthenon naos was made of
a. marble and bronze.
b. ivory and bronze.
c. ivory and marble.
d. gold and marble.
e. gold and ivory.
Answer: e
39. Which is found in the Parthenon sculptures?
a. contrapposto
b. isocephaly
c. symmetry
d. all of these: contrapposto, isocephaly, and symmetry
e. None of these answers is correct.
Answer: d
40. Which is NOT part of the Erechtheum?
a. the Ionic Order
b. caryatids
c. Doric columns
d. an irregular plan
Answer: c
41. A female figure used as a column is known as a
a. caryatid.
b. kore.
c. kouros.
d. atlantid.
Answer: a
42. Greek theater began
a. inside of temples.
b. outside of temples.
c. in the hills.
d. by the sea.
e. around trees.
Answer: c
43. Which is NOT part of Greek theater architecture?
a. orchestra
b. pronaos
c. proscenium
d. skene
e. parados
Answer: b
44. The first known Greek artist to celebrate the female nude was
a. Praxiteles.
b. Phidias.
c. Perikles.
d. Lysippos.
e. Exekias.
Answer: a
45. Demosthenes was
a. a tragedian.
b. an orator.
c. a historian.
d. a poet.
e. a sculptor.
Answer: b
46. Alexander the Great was
a. an Athenian.
b. a Persian.
c. a Pergamene.
d. a Macedonian.
e. a Mycenaean.
Answer: d
47. Winged Victory was found in
a. Sparta.
b. Athens.
c. Macedon.
d. Samothrace.
e. Rhodes.
Answer: d
48. Greek Hellenistic art
a. is realistic.
b. conveys inner character.
c. is more passionate.
d. All these answers are correct.
Answer: d
49. The priest who warned the Trojans not to bring in the giant wooden horse was
a. Herakles.
b. Laocoön.
c. killed by snakes.
d. both Laocoön and killed by snakes.
Answer: d
50. Which of the following was NOT a Greek tragedian?
a. Aristophanes
b. Sophokles
c. Aeschylos
d. Euripides
Answer: a
51. Plato’s spokesman in the Dialogues was
a. Perikles.
b. Herodotos.
c. Sophokles.
d. Demosthenes.
e. Socrates.
Answer: e
52. The Trojan War took place around
a. 800 B.C.
b. 1000 B.C.
c. 1200 B.C.
d. 900 B.C.
e. 600 B.C.
Answer: c
53. Troy was located in
a. East Greece.
b. the Cyclades.
c. Persia.
d. Anatolia.
e. Mycenae.
Answer: d
54. Who wrote the The Oresteia?
a. Aeschylos
b. Sophokles
c. Euripides
d. Herodotos
e. Plato
Answer: a
55. Who wrote The Republic?
a. Homer
b. Plato
c. Socrates
d. Perikles
e. Herodotos
Answer: b
56. Which of the following is true?
a. Homer wrote The Laws.
b. Plato wrote the Iliad.
c. Socrates wrote Dialogues.
d. Demosthenes wrote speeches.
e. Euripides wrote comedies.
Answer: d
57. Which of the following was NOT a Greek sculptor?
a. Praxiteles
b. Myron
c. Phidias
d. Polykleitos
e. Exekias
Answer: e
Source: http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/dl/free/0073379239/825429/adams4_tb_ch05.doc
Web site to visit: http://highered.mheducation.com
Author of the text: not indicated on the source document of the above text
If you are the author of the text above and you not agree to share your knowledge for teaching, research, scholarship (for fair use as indicated in the United States copyrigh low) please send us an e-mail and we will remove your text quickly. Fair use is a limitation and exception to the exclusive right granted by copyright law to the author of a creative work. In United States copyright law, fair use is a doctrine that permits limited use of copyrighted material without acquiring permission from the rights holders. Examples of fair use include commentary, search engines, criticism, news reporting, research, teaching, library archiving and scholarship. It provides for the legal, unlicensed citation or incorporation of copyrighted material in another author's work under a four-factor balancing test. (source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_use)
The information of medicine and health contained in the site are of a general nature and purpose which is purely informative and for this reason may not replace in any case, the council of a doctor or a qualified entity legally to the profession.
The following texts are the property of their respective authors and we thank them for giving us the opportunity to share for free to students, teachers and users of the Web their texts will used only for illustrative educational and scientific purposes only.
All the information in our site are given for nonprofit educational purposes
The information of medicine and health contained in the site are of a general nature and purpose which is purely informative and for this reason may not replace in any case, the council of a doctor or a qualified entity legally to the profession.
www.riassuntini.com