Italian Renaissance summary

Chapter 12
Recovery and Rebirth: The Age of the Renaissance
Chapter Outline:

Section 1: Meaning and Characteristics of the Italian Renaissance

The Italian Renaissance was a period of antiquity rebirth that occurred between 1350 and 1550. The Renaissance was described by Jacob Burckhardt in his book The Civilization of the Renaissance. Burckhardt describes the Renaissance in Italy’s distinguishing features to be the revival of antiquity, the “perfecting of the individual,” and secularism. Although others such as Burckhardt argued that the Renaissance was an abrupt break from the Middle Ages, the Renaissance had many of the same political, economic, and social life aspects. Renaissance Italy was an urban society that was divided into many independent city-states. These city-states where cultural centers of politics, economics, and social life. The Renaissance was also seen as a recovery from the fourteenth century and its destructive events such as the Black Death. Throughout this period of recovery gave rise to increasing wealth which led to new luxuries and new ideas in art, politics, philosophy, and religion. A new outlook on human beings that focused on the fact the humans are capable of many achievements and trades also became vastly popular. However, it was the Italian nobility that truly had the largest impact during the Renaissance and achieved many things we still admire today. However, the common people were also moderately impacted by the accomplishments of the nobility.

Section 2: The Making of Renaissance

A new era of manufacturing and trade began after the economic depressions and social upheavals of the fourteenth century.

Section 2-1: Economic Recovery

During the fourteenth century, Italian merchants began to expand their trade routes and commerce along the Atlantic seaboard. The Venetian Flanders Fleet also upheld a sea route from Venice to England and the Netherlands. The Italians also ran into the Hanseatic League of merchants who continued to grow and flourish while the Italians lost their commercial superiority over the Hanseatic League.

Section 2-2: Expansion of Trade

During the thirteenth century, many North German coastal towns banded together and formed the Hanseatic League, a commercial and military association that flourished during the Renaissance. Over eighty cities joined the league by 1500 and set up many commercial bases and trade hubs in cities in England and Northern Europe. The Hanseatic League monopolized many trade industries for almost two hundred years. One of the Hansa League’s southern ports, Brouges, became a waypoint between the Hansa League and the Venetian Flanders Fleet and also served as an economic crossroads for Europe.

Section 2-3: Industries Old and New

After the economic depression of the fourteenth century, Italian cities began to develop new luxury industries including silk, glassware, metal working, printing, mining, and metallurgy. These industries eventually began to rival the textile industry in the fifteenth century. The mining industry also began to thrive and gain importance in the economy due to valuable metals. Iron production also gave rise to new weaponry.

Section 2-4: Banking and the Medici

In the fifteenth century, the Medici family, centered in Florence, owned the greatest bank in Europe. which had branches in many regions. The Medici family also held power in other industries including wool, silk, and alum mining. After the Medici family’s success throughout the fifteenth century, they had an abrupt decline and where expelled in 1494 by the French who also confiscated their land and property. The Medici edifice collapsed soon after.

Section 3: Social Changes in the Renaissance

Renaissance society chiefly received its social structure from the Middle Ages. The Renaissance social structure was divided into three main ranks: the First Estate, the clergy; the Second Estate, the nobility; and the Third Estate, the peasants and townspeople. However, many new ideas and changes were implemented into the Renaissance social rankings.

Section 3-1: The Nobility

Throughout Europe during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the nobility’s incomes began to decline as maintain the social status of a noble became expensive. Because of this, new members joined the ranks of the nobility along with the older portion and a restoration of the aristocracy began by 1500. The nobility continued to control society by continuing to hold important places of power such as chief military officers and advising the king. New ideals became a standard in the nobility including becoming “the perfect courtier.” This new “goal” sought after by all nobles was to become a high-achieving, multitalented, educated, well-rounded individual who was expected to be a “jack-of-all trades.” A new code of conduct was also implemented in the nobility involving perfect etiquette while being modest when reveal your personal achievements. The nobility continued to follow their new Renaissance inspired ways while still dominating social life as well as politics.

Section 3-2: Peasants and Townspeople

The peasants and townspeople made up the Third Estate of society which was around 85% of the European population. Due to new Renaissance ideals, the manorial and serfdom systems began to slowly fade from regularity and lords offered peasants their freedom in exchange for rents. The townspeople, merchants, and artisans who made up the other remainder of the Third Estate provided a basis for the economy to have a steady growth. Shopkeepers and merchants provided goods and services that townspeople paid money for. The patricians were at the top of urban society and controlled enterprises in trade, banking, and industry which allowed to acquire vast amounts of wealth and dominated urban society. Under these townspeople in social ranking where the poor workers and the unemployed who were steadily rising in number due to an increasing economic gap. Urban poverty steadily increased throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.

Section 3-3: Slavery in the Renaissance

Agricultural slavery during the renaissance began to first reappear in Spain and was revived largely in Italy when the Florentine government announced unlimited importation of slaves. Slaves where used by many people to help with work, keep children company and watch them, and just as regular housemaids. Slavery dramatically declined during the fifteenth century.

Section 4: Family in Renaissance Italy

Family during the Renaissance was very important and especially in Italy. Family included all immediate family members as well as slaves and servants. Family bonds where very secure and were regarded as one group of people.

Section 4-1: Marriage

Marriage was carefully watched as to strengthen family bonds in business as well as allow people to move up or down in social status. Dowries were also valued and could involved vast amounts of money and property. The father/husband in an Italian family was responsible for all legal issues, finances, and decisions regarding his family members. The father was the absolute authority in a family and children were only freed from his authority until emancipated.

Section 4-2: Children

The mother/wife in the family took care of the household and was responsible for watching over the children or finding a maid to do so. They mother main priority was to bear children and as many as possible, preferably a son so as to expand the family lineage. Many upper-class wives bore children continuously and gave their infants to wet nurses to be fed so they could continue to bear children.

Section 4-3: Sexual Norms

Husbands and wives during the Italian Renaissance generally had an age difference of around thirteen years and it was normal for husband to have sexual outlets outside of marriage. Women found courting other men where often executed. Prostitution was also a growing necessary vice that was regulated, such as in Florence where city fathers set up communal brothels.

Section 5: The Italian States in the Renaissance

By the fifteenth century, five major political powers dominated Italian politics: Milan, Venice, Florence, the Papal States, and Naples.

Section 5-1: The Five Major States

Northern Italy during the fifteenth century was divided by Milan and the republic of Venice. After the death of the previous Visconti ruler of Milan, Francesco Sforza conquered Milan and was named its new duke. He worked to create a centralized territorial state and devised a system of taxation that output vast amounts of revenue for the government. The republic of Venice remained stable by being governed by a small oligarchy of aristocrats. It was a commercial empire and generated lots of wealth which allowed it to gain international power. Towards the end of the fourteenth century, the Venetians tried to conquer a state in northern Italy so as to overland trade routes and expand while securing its food supply. Milan and Florence felt threatened and worked to curb the Venetian expansion.

Section 5-2: Republic of Florence

The Florentine republic dominated Tuscany and was also ruled by a small elite oligarchy of merchants during the fifteenth century. In 1434, Cosimo d’ Medici seized control of the oligarchy and successfully dominated Florence when it was the center of the cultural Renaissance.

Section 5-3: Papal States

The Papal States were located in central Italy and were politically controlled by popes. However, after the Great Schism individual cities such as Urbino, Bologna, and Ferrara became independent from the papal government. The popes of the Renaissance directed their attention throughout the fifteenth century at regaining control of the Papal States.

Section 5-4: Kingdom of Naples

The Kingdom of Naples dominated most of southern Italy and the island of Sicily, which as fought over by the French and Aragonese but the Naples eventually secured control in the fifteenth century. The Naples monarchy maintained control over a poverty stricken population ruled by tyrannical nobles. The Kingdom of Naples experienced little of the cultural Renaissance.

Section 5-5: Independent City-States

Other than the five major states, many independent city-states ruled by powerful, wealthy families served as wonderful centers of the cultural Renaissance during the fifteenth century. Some of these were Mantua, Ferrara, and Urbino.

Section 5-6: Urbino

Urbino was ruled by Federigo da Montefeltro from 1444 to 1482. He was a humanist who had a classical education as well as training in combat to generate income as a condotierre. He was an honest and reliable ruler as well as one of the greatest patrons of Renaissance culture. Throughout his rule, Urbino became a thriving intellectual center.

Section 5-7: The Role of Women

In the independent city-states such as Urbino, wives ruled their husbands estates and enterprises in their absences such as Battista Sforza, wife of Federigo da Montefeltro. A famous woman ruler during the Renaissance was Isabella d’Este, who was known for her brightness and political wisdom, amassed one of the finest libraries in Italy which attracted many intellectuals and artists to Mantua. After her husband’s death, the marquis of Mantua, she ruled Mantua and was known as a clever negotiator.

Section 5-8: Warfare in Italy

Due to the many territorial states of Italy, new political practices came into play to compete with other states so as to achieve a balance of power. After the Peace of Lodi was signed by the Italian States, half a century of war came to halt and began a peaceful 40 year long era in Italy. However, a lasting peace was not achieved among the ruling powers of Italy. Due to the growth of monarchial states, Italy became a war zone between the Spaniards and French. After many years of warfare after a breakdown of power in Italy, the Spaniards successfully conquered Italy. However, Italians remained fiercely loyal to their states and did not unify until 1870.

Section 5-9 The Birth of Modern Diplomacy

Modern diplomacy was a result of the Italian Renaissance. Ambassadors were beginning to be implemented into host states to conduct business while maintaining security between smaller city-states. This practice eventually spread throughout Europe. The use of ambassadors to conduct political interests with other states began the start of modern politics during the Renaissance.

Section 5-10: Machiavelli and the New Statecraft

Niccolo Machiavelli joined the service of the Florentine republic in 1498 as a secretary in the Florentine Council of Ten. After the Spanish victory over Italy which led to the reestablishment of Medici power in Florence, republicans such as Machiavelli where sentenced to exile. Machiavelli then began to reflect on political power during the Renaissance.

Section 5-11: The Prince

Machiavelli’s ideas for his work in politics came from his outlook on Italy’s political problems and his extensive knowledge of ancient Rome. His focuses in The Prince were how to obtain political power as well as restoring and maintain order during the Renaissance. Machiavelli’s outlook on how a prince should govern his estate was to base their rule on human nature. Machiavelli was looked upon as being on of the first to leave behind morality in order to gain political power.

Section 6: The Intellectual Renaissance in Italy

Two characteristics of the Italian Renaissance were individualism and secularism, which were noticed in the artistic and intellectual realms. Italy became the cultural leader during the Renaissance in Europe. Another important literary movement was humanism.

Section 6-1: Italian Renaissance Humanism

Renaissance humanism was an intellectual movement involving the extensive study of humanities and classical literature of Greece and Rome. The humanists became professors and teachers of secondary schools while other were secretaries in the chancelleries of Italian city-states.

Section 6-2: The Emergence of Humanism

Petrarch, the father of Italian humanism, rejected his father’s desired future for him and decided to take up the study of classical literary works of Greece and Rome. During the Renaissance, Petrarch dedicated his life to the development of humanism. He was also noted for being the first to denoted the Middle Ages as an age of darkness.

Section 6-3: Humanism in the Fifteenth-Century Italy

In Florence, humanism began to tie closely together with civic spirit and pride created a new sect of civic humanism. As civic humanism gained popularity, many more humanists began to enter the world of great intellectuals and scholars who discussed human life and what humans are capable of. Civic Humanism also caused humanists to begin to demand that humanities should be a service of the state. Towards the end of the fifteenth century a new body of humanists had emerged.

Section 6-4: Humanism and Philosophy

Towards the second half of the fifteenth century, the works of Plato became a chief interest in Florence and Cosimo d’Medici was a prominent patron of the translation of Plato’s works. This new study of Platonic philosophy was known as Neoplatonism. This involved the belief that there was a link between the material world and spiritual realm. These ideas also stated that all people are bound together by love.

Section 6-5: Renaissance Hermeticism

Hermeticism was another intellectual idea that arose in Florence that focus on many occult sciences such as astrology, alchemy, and magic. This revival of hermetic ideas was seen as a new view on humankind which stated that humans were born with a certain divinity that could be nourished so as to reach an intellectual mindset of a true magi or sage of the Renaissance. The most prominent magi of the fifteenth century were Ficino and his pupil Giovanni.

Section 6-6: Education in the Renaissance

The humanist movement had a profound impact on education that caused an upsurge in the studies of philosophy, humanities, grammar, history, math, astronomy, and music. A few groups of lower class children also began to receive free educations while other schools worked towards a pristine education for the elite. Females, however, were hardly educated with few exceptions. The humanist outlook on education was to create a complete citizen who was educated in the ways of life. Humanist schools along with Christianity and classics became the outline for basic education in Europe until the twentieth century.

Section 6-7: Guicciardini

The peak of Renaissance historiography was observed in the works of Francesco Guicciardini. He is known as one of the greatest historians between Tacitus and Volataire and Gibbon. His works represented “modern analytical historiography,” and his outlook on the writing of history to be a means of teaching lessons. Due to his background in diplomacy, he stressed political and military history in his writing.

Section 6-8: The Impact of Printing

During the Renaissance, printing was a very important technological invention that revolutionized intellectual life and thought. The new innovation in printing was that there was now new movable metal type largely developed by Johannes Gutenburg, who also printed the “first true book” made by movable type, Gutenburg’s Bible. This new technology soon spread across Europe and gave rise to a printing center in Venice that involved one hundred printers. By 1500 close to forty thousand books had been printed, many of which were religious books. The printing industry gained rising importance in Europe and impacted everyday life, especially reading and the spread of news.

Section 7: The Artistic Renaissance

Artists during the Renaissance began to develop new styles of art attempted to capture realism and naturalism in order to gain the attention of viewers with the realism of their paintings. Another main idea of Renaissance art was that humans should be the center of attention.

Section 7-1: Art in the Early Renaissance

Many recognized artists of the Renaissance concluded the Giotto began the “imitation of nature” in the fourteenth century. His work was then improved upon by Masaccio who was regarded for his use of monumental figures to show a more realistic view in his paintings. This new style of art during the Renaissance was very popular during the fifteenth century and branched off into two different styles of painting that involved a mathematical side and a side that involved the laws of perspective and light. One notable painter who used the laws of perspective was Paolo Uccello. Other Florentine artists began to delve into Greek and Roman mythology which they portrayed in their works. Thought the Florentine painters had reached great achievements in the fifteenth century, the Florentine sculptors and architects. Famous architects and sculptors included Donao di Donatello, famous for his statue of David, and Filippo Brunelleschi, famous for the Cathedral of Florence. A new stressed importance on portraiture also gave rise to new styles of Renaissance art.

Section 7-2: The Artistic High Renaissance

Towards the end of the fifteenth century, Italian painters, architects, and sculptors made a new era of art. The last stage of Renaissance art thrived between 1480 and 1520, which was noted by a stressed importance of Rome as a cultural center of the Italian Renaissance. The three dominating artists of the High Renaissance were Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo. Leonardo focused on pushing forward past realism and onto “the idealization of nature,” the generalization of realistic portrayal to a more ideal sort. Leonardo’s Last Supper was his attempt to put emotional depth into a painting and reveal a person’s “inner life.” Raphael was a painter at a young age and was known in Italy for his numerous madonnas. Michelangelo, a painter, sculptor, and architect who worked a large projects. He is best known for his ceiling paintings of the Sistine Chapel in Rome and his sculpting masterpiece of marble, David.

Section 7-3: The Artist and Social Status

Artists of the early Renaissance started out as apprentices and worked their way up to become masters of their own workshops and guilds. Since artists still fell under the social ranking of artisans, wealthy patrons determined whether or not certain projects could be commissioned. However, artistic greats such as Michelangelo were regarded as belonging to a much higher social status and was looked up to by many. Because of this shift, artists where able to profit more from their work and slowly rose in social rank to blend with high intellectuals and political elites.

Section 7-4: The Northern Artistic Renaissance

The artists of the north and Italy began to make human form the ideal mode to show humans in a realistic setting in their art. New ideas in paintings also began to take place such as oil painting which was started by Jan Van Eyck which allowed painters to use many colors as well as a fine attention to detail, such as in Jan Van Eyck’s Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride. The artists of the north focused more on visual perfection than on the mastery of the laws of perspective. Another notable artist of the time was Albrecht Durer who also stressed the importance of minute details.

Section 7-5: Music in the Renaissance

During the fifteenth century, the dukes of Burgundy in northern Europe drew in many great artists and musicians of the time. One of the most notable being Guillaume Dufay, a composer who was most famous for his change in the composition of the Mass. The Renaissance madrigal was poem set to music from the fourteenth century with themes of love. By the sixteenth century, madrigals started to be written for larger audiences with five to six voices. These madrigals eventually spread to England and were expanded upon there.

Section 8: The European State in the Renaissance

During the fifteenth century European states kept on breaking apart. The second half of the century was dedicated to reuniting a the states and creating a centralized power that was labeled as the “new monarchies.”

Section 8-1: The Growth of the French Monarchy

The Hundred Years’ War which had left France depleted of its wealth and resources led to ruined economy that made it difficult for French monarchies to sustain their authority. However, the French monarchies used war as a common goal to reunite and assert their authority over their domains and constructed an army while disregarding parliament. This led to the development of a French territorial state which was expanded upon by King Louis XI who obtained an income and later obtained a portion of land known as the duchy of Burgundy to later strengthen the development of a French monarchy.

Section 8-2: England: Civil War and a New Monarchy

The Hundred Years’ War had also impacted England due to the expenses of the war and the loss of forces halted the English economy. More problems arose after the War of Roses began in 1450. This civil war was a fight between the house of Lancaster and the house of York. After many high families of England where drawn into the war, Henry Tudor conquered the last Yorkist King and initiated the beginning of the Tudor dynasty. Henry VII maintained control by assemble small armies for certain campaigns and abolish private armies of nobles. He also created a court dedicated to the unruly activities of nobles in order to sustain order. By avoiding costly decisions and obtaining an income by taxation, Henry VII won the favor of the gentry and gave England a solid, thriving government and monarchy.

Section 8-3: Unification of Spain

Throughout the fifteenth century, Spain was divided and slowly worked towards unification of its kingdoms. One important step towards unification was the marriage of Isabella of Castile to Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469. This created a unified monarchy between two kingdoms. With their authority, Isabella and Ferdinand reconstructed the Spanish military forces and seized the right to chose church officials for the Catholic Church in Spain from the pope, making the clergy under their command. Ferdinand and Isabella then attempted to convert all Jews and Muslims to Christianity but failed, and instead expelled them all from Spain. This was called the Spanish Inquisition and created a religious uniformity of Catholicism in Spain.

Section 8-5: The Holy Roman Empire: The Success of the Habsburg

The Holy Roman Empire was unable to create a powerful monarchial authority that France, England, and Spain had achieved. Because of this, the Habsburgs dynasty controlled the position of Holy Roman Emperor and became one of the wealthiest land lords in the empire and had a significant role in the business of Europeans. The success of the Habsburgs was largely due to wise political decisions that involved dynastic marriages. Through these marriages, the Habsburgs acquired many regions and were recognized s and international power.

Section 8-6: The Struggle for Strong Monarchy in Eastern Europe

Throughout eastern Europe, many rulers attempted to control and centralize territorial states but failed due to religious differences between peoples and other ethnic groups. Polish kings also tried to set up a powerful monarchial authority but failed. The Hussite War caused an outburst of civil war and further weakened monarchies. Hungary soon became and area of religious reformation that led to a conversion to Catholicism by German missionaries. Hungary then enjoyed a period of cultural Renaissance and being a ruling power in eastern Europe. Russia began making deals with the Mongol Khan and soon fell under their control. Soon the great russian great prince Ivan III separated Russia from the Mongol’s dominance.

Section 8-7: The Ottoman Turks and the End of the Byzantine Empire

Eastern Europe started to become progressively intimidated by the Ottoman Turks who where slowly moving forward. When the Byzantine Empire was weakened by the sack of Constantinople in 1204, the Ottoman Turks advanced quickly and conquered the Byzantine Empire and the lands of the Seljuk Turks. As Ottoman forces advanced into Bulgaria and the Serbian lands, King Lazar opposed their forces. Eventually in 1389, after the battle of Kosovo, the Ottomans conquered the Serbs and went on to seize the lands of Serbia, Albania, and Bosnia in 1480. After their swift advancements, the Ottoman Empire was feared many nearby regions and became an chief enemy of the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V.

Section 9: The Church in the Renaissance

The Council of Constance worked to end the Great Schism in 1417 and was successful, but failed in the refinement and problems of heresy.

Section 9-1: The Problems of Heresy and Reform

New problems for the church arose during the fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries known as the Lollardy and Hussitism movements.

Section 9-2: Wyclif and Lollardy

John Wyclif was an Oxford theologian who created English Lollardy as an opposing force to papal authority and Chrisitan beliefs. Wyclif spread his ideas that the pope had no authority and should be stripped of the land that is not rightfully his. His ideas also stated that the Bible should be the sole authority for Christians practices and beliefs. A number people where drawn in by his ideas and form the Lollards.

Section 9-3: Hus and the Hussites

The royal families of Bohemian and England bonded through marriage and allowed Lollard ideas to extend throughout Bohemia. John Hus attempted to refine the church’s ways, he called for the elimination of worldliness, the corruption of the clergy, and the dominating power of the papacy of the Catholic Church. When offered a chance to speak in front of the Council of Constance, John Hus was arrested and burned at the stake as a heretic. This led to a Bohemian uprising and began the Hussite wars which did not end until a truce in 1436.

Section 9-4: Reform of the Church

The reformation of the church was unsuccessful when the Council of Constance mad two reform decrees that stated that the sole authority of the Church was God, and that the Church reform would continue. However, after thirty years, popes fought back the council and regained their dominance over the Catholic Church. However, the papacy steadily began to lose its power throughout the fifteenth century.

Section 9-5: The Renaissance Papacy

The Renaissance papacy was the lineage of popes after the Great Schism until the sixteenth century. The papacy attempted to maintain spiritual control over the Catholic Church. Many popes used war as a main means of politics and conquering their enemies such as Julius II. Even though the papacy could not have a monarchy over the Papal States, many popes appointed their kin as high ranking church officials to maintain dominance. Others, such as Alexander VI scandalized the church by having family members set aside land of the Papal States for themselves. The popes of the Renaissance promoted Renaissance culture but was filled with deceit, however, Rome became one of the main artistic and cultural centers of the Renaissance.

Chapter 12
Recovery and Rebirth: The Age of the Renaissance
Questions:

The Italian Renaissance was characterized a rebirth of antiquity, an outburst of humanism, independent cities, philosophy, theology, and new styles of art. The rebirth of classical antiquity was the driving force behind all the changes in politics, religion, philosophy, and the newly adopted styles of art. A new emphasis on human dignity, value, and ability to succeed gave rise people becoming people of many abilities and trades. This belief of a person becoming more “well-rounded” and able to achieve in many areas of life became a chief characteristic in the Italian Renaissance and led to the many artistic, philosophical, theological, and architectural achievements that are noted today. The Italian renaissance also brought about a large urban society that spread across northern Italy in the mid-fourteenth century which gave rise to many independent cities. These city-states where cultural centers of politics, economics, and new social life. A new secular spirit arose in these city-states as increasing wealth which allowed people enjoy new luxuries. The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century, however, focused on a renewal of education and learning about classical studies and preserving Latin culture. These two rebirths had two different focuses: the Italian Renaissance focused on a rebirth of antiquity and societal renewal, while the 12th Century Renaissance focused on a revival of education.

The major social changes of the Renaissance era were that being part of the nobility became increasingly expensive and many new members infused with the older ranks. The nobility’s members also began to develop new ideals to become “the perfect courtier” who was skilled and educated in many fields of education while having perfect etiquette and class. During the Renaissance serfdom and the manorial system began to steadily fade from regularity and many peasants earned their freedom by paying rents to lords. Artisans and merchants during the Renaissance were simply provided goods and services while patricians dominated urban society with their wealth from capitalistic enterprises in trade, industry, and banking. Throughout the Renaissance urban poverty also increased greatly. These changes were not a rejection of medieval trends because many medieval trends such as lords granting freedom to peasants where retained but new Renaissance inspired trends such as the “perfect courtier” in the nobility were new ideas.

During the Renaissance, Italy was dominated by five major political powers: Milan, Venice, Florence, the Papal States, and Naples. Milan and Venice divided Northern Italy while the republic of Florence ruled the region of Tuscany. The Papal States where located in Central Italy and the Kingdom of Naples dominated southern Italy. Outside of the five major ruling powers, independent city-states controlled by powerful, wealthy families became hubs of Renaissance culture. Some prominent city-states where Mantua, Ferrara, and Urbino. Later, after a failed attempted at a balance of power between the five major ruling powers, Italy became a war zone from a lasting power struggle between the French and Spaniards. Around 1527, the Spaniards finally conquered Italy. The Italians contributed the political practice of modern diplomatics and having ambassadors in host country to conduct diplomatic business to Europe. These political practices where reflected in Machiavelli’s The Prince, which discussed political power and maintaining order during the Renaissance.

Italian Renaissance humanism was an intellectual movement based on literary works of Greece and Rome. Humanism gave rise to a new movement of education in humanities, which consisted of grammar, rhetoric, poetry, ethics, and history. Humanism the belief that humans are capable of achieving their greatest potentials and ruling their own lives and futures rather than a god or supernatural entity. The humanists were a group of believers who were often teachers or professors in secondary schools who taught humanities or secretaries in the chancelleries of Italian city-states. The humanists’ goals were to increase the awareness of classical Roman and Greek literature as well as the other studies of humanities and introduce them into education and into the lives of the common people. This goal was achieved as a conscious being of humanists emerged in the fifteenth century.

The distinctive characteristics of the Renaissance artists were the new style of realistic art that was an attempt at an “imitation of nature” in their paintings, the portrayal of the human in the nude, an outburst of portraiture, and attempts to reflect a human-centered reality. Their art reflected the political and social events at the time by depicting human nature and a realistic perspective in their art which reflected political deceit and the social lives of people such as Jan van Eyck’s Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride, which reflected the impact of marriage on a couple.

Chapter 12
Recovery and Rebirth: The Age of the Renaissance
Vocabulary:

Renaissance- A period of time in the 14th-16th centuries in which art and literature bloomed. It was said to have begun in Florence.
House of Medici- One of the largest banks in europe that branches into many prominent cities.
Castiglione’s Book of the Courtier- A book that explained how to become the ideal renaissance courtier.
Francesco Sforza- A condottieri who conquered Milan and became its new duke after the death of the previous Visconti ruler.
Cosimo d’Medici- The leader of the ruling oligarchy in Florence around 1434, when Florence was the center of the cultural Renaissance .
the Papal States- An area in central Italy that was ruled by the popes until it broke up into individual territories and cities after the Great Schism.
Isabella d’Este- A famous ruler during the Renaissance was known for her intelligence and political wisdom. She was the daughter of the duke of Ferrara and married to Francesco Gonzaga, the marquis of Mantua. She was also known for producing one of the finest libraries in Italy. After her husband’s death, she became the ruler of Mantua.
Machiavelli’s The Prince- One of the most famous treatises on political power in the Western world.
civic humanism- an scholarly movement of the Italian Renaissance that saw Cicero, who was both an scholar and a statesman, as the model and held that humanists should be involved in government and use their linguistic training in the service of the state.
Petrarch- A man known the father of Italian Renaissance humanism.
Renaissance hermeticism- an intellectual movement beginning in the 15h century that taught that divinity is the embodied in all aspects of nature; it included works on alchemy and magic as well as theology and philosophy. The tradition continued into the 17th century and influenced many of the leading figures of the Scientific Revolution.
Johannes Gutenberg- the first man in the West to print using movable type. By 1455 he had completed the Gutenberg Bible, the first true book produced by movable type.
High Renaissance- A period of time between 1480 and 1520 that was the final stage of Renaissance art which was marked by the increasing importance of Rome as a new cultural center.
Leonardo da Vinci- An Italian painter, scientist, and engineer noted for his paintings which included The Virgin of the Rocks, The Last Supper, and the Mona Lisa.
Raphael- An Italian painter and architect regarded as one of the greatest artists of the Renaissance, noted for his altarpiece, the Sistine Madonna. As an architect, he was put in charge of work on St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome in 1514.
Michelangelo- A renowned painter, sculptor, and architect who was noted for his sculptures the Pieta and David. He is also known for decorating the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome and painted the fresco The Last Judgment.
Sistine Chapel’s David- a colossal marble statue commissioned in 1501 and completed in 1504 by Michelangelo. The sculpture is said to claim the beauty of the human body and the glory of human beings.
Northern Renaissance- the spreading influence of the Renaissance to areas outside of Italy. Northern Renaissance art focused on portraying humans in a realistic manner and setting.
Jan van Eyck- A painter among the first to use oil paint and was noted for her precise attention to detail.
Albrecht Durer- A famous northern artist who wrote detailed treatises on the laws of perspective and Renaissance theories of proportion. He is noted for his detailed painting, Adoration of the Magi.
“new monarchies”- the new governments of France, England, and Spain at the end of the 15th century, whose rulers succeeded in reestablishing or extending centralized royal authority, suppressing the nobility, controlling the church, and insisting on the loyalty of all peoples living in their territories.
Louis XI the Spider and Henry VIII- King Louis XI the Spider was known for his willy and devious ways. He was also known for helping advance the development of a French territorial state. He also secured a solid income by retaining a permanent tax imposed by royal authority. Henry VIII was the first Tudor king who worked to reduce internal dissension and establish a strong monarchical government. Henry also ended private wars of the nobility by abolishing “livery and maintenance.”
Ferdinand and Isabella- Together they enforced a strict religious uniformity. They also noticed the importance of the Catholic church, and how vital it was to control it.
Spanish Inquisition- The expelling of all the jews and muslims from spain. 150,000 to 200,000 jews fled the country. The inquisition was sparked by growing complaints about the sincerity of Jewish converts. Isabella and Ferdinand asked the church to investigate, giving them the authority to guarantee their orthodoxy, and with that power they did so with cruel efficiency.
The Habsburgs- A dynasty that ruled the position of Holy Roman Emperor. They were one of the wealthiest landlords in the empire and by the mid 15th century they played an important role in European affairs.

Chapter 13
Reformation and Religious Warfare in the Sixteenth Century
Chapter Outline:

Section 1: Prelude to Reformation

Martin Luther’s reformation was but one of other previous reformations such as the the northern Renaissance humanism movement in the second half of the fifteenth century.

Section 1-1: Christian or Northern Renaissance Humanism

The northern humanists also extensively studied the classics like the Italian humanists but also stressed the early scriptures of Christianity. However, the northern humanists also had a reformation program that was based on the idea that if they bettered themselves through education then they could create an inward religious feeling that would cause a church and societal reform. These humanists were also supporters of schools and the power of education.

Section 1-2: Erasmus

Claimed to be the most influential humanist of his time, Erasmus helped develop the reformation program of Christian humanism. Erasmus believed that Christianity should be guiding philosophy for everyday life rather then regimented practice. Erasmus saw the reformation as spreading the true teachings of Jesus to instill a more true faith. Erasmus paved the way for Martin Luther to complete to church reformation.

Section 1-3: Thomas More

Thomas More was a highly educated scholar who took interest in classical learning and sought to make learning a service of state and through his journey he became the lord chancellor of England. More was also famous for his book Utopia, which was about the ideal life in a community of Utopia. It showed More’s outlook on the economic, social, and political problems of his time. He gave up his life when he objected the divorce of King Henry VII.

Section 1-4: Church and Religion on the Eve of the Reformation

The corruption of the Catholic Church pushed people towards a reform because the papacy was constantly occupied with financial issues. The clergy also slowly became filled with nobles and wealthy members of the bourgeoisie. This led to church officials becoming too occupied to watch the actions of their subordinates which resulted in chaos within the church. This went on as people sought after spiritual leadership that was absent.

Section 2: Martin Luther and the Reformation in Germany

The Protestant reformation began with Martin Luther, who split from the church, causing a divide in religious unity of the western Christendom, and started getting others to think about the church and its corrupt ways. However, the church was still tangled with social, economic, and political forces.

Section 2-1: The Early Luther

Martin Luther, at first on the track to becoming a lawyer, was well educated but turned to the monastic order of the Augustinian Hermits when he vowed to become a monk if he left a thunderstorm unscathed. Here, Luther began to question how to achieve salvation and the church’s traditional practices. He eventually came to the conclusion that salvation is only achievable by having faith in God, this became the leading doctrine in the Protestant Reformation.

Section 2-2: The Indulgence Controversy

Luther did not consider himself a heretic or radical but when the indulgence controversy came along, Luther’s involvement brought him to a confrontation with church officials and they mad him see the implications of justification by faith. The sale of indulgences angered Luther and caused him to send out his Ninety-Five Theses to his ecclesiastical superior. However, his issue was disregarded and the pope did not halt the sale of indulgences.

Section 2-3: The Quickening Rebellion

During the Leipzig Debate in 1519, Luther challenged that Catholic theologian Johann Eck, which ended in Luther revoking the jurisdiction of the popes and councils. Luther had to face the consequences of his “blasphemy,” but continued to work towards a reformation and a break with the Catholic Church. He went before the Holy Roman Emperor and continued to express his ideals. He was then excommunicated in 1521 and then sentenced an outlaw in the Holy Roman Empire and wanted by the emperor.

Section 2-4: The Rise of Lutheranism

After remaining unseen after a bounty was placed on him in the Holy Roman Empire, Luther started organizing a reformed church. Luther’s ideals dubbed Lutheranism gained popularity quickly and was favored through Germany. Luther’s new movement brought about a state-enforced reform of the church as pamphlets were distributed to inform the people.

Section 2-5: The Spread of Luther’s Ideas

Lutheranism spread across Germany and cities such as Nuremberg began conversions to Lutheranism in 1525. Although Lutheranism was widely accepted, many northern humanists began to see a split in the Christendom unity and left Luther’s reformation. However, younger humanists stayed with Lutheranism along with others.

Section 2-6: The Peasants’ War

In the 1520s, peasants in Germany became dissatisfied with the facts that the economic growth had not impacted them, along with social discontent, and abusive local lords. This led to the Peasants’ War, when religious upheaval began to rise and revolts began to break out in 1524 in southwestern Germany and then slowly throughout the other regions. Luther supported the state rulers, princes, and magistrates who put down the rebellions in 1525. Luther realized that he needed the support of the German nobility for the development of his new reformed church.

Section 2-7: Church and State

Luther’s new reformed Church needed a redefined set of doctrines. These doctrines included “justification by faith alone,” baptism, and the Lord’s Supper. Luther’s new changes to his church included having an organize church as opposed to an invisible entity. However, Luther became increasingly reliant on the princes and state authorities of Germany to guide his new reformed church. Luther’s new church became increasingly regulated and ran by the state authorities. Luther also married Katherina von Bora in 1525 to provide an example of married life for the new Protestant minister.

Section 2-8: Germany and the Reformation: Religion and Politics

Luther’s movement relied heavily on political affairs and assets. In 1519, Charles I became the Holy Roman Emperor, ruling the immense empire. However, due to problems with the French, the Turks, and Germany’s internal affairs. These setbacks allowed Luther’s reformation to reorganized and spread so as to prepare for Catholic forces.

Section 2-9: French, the Papacy, and the Turks

Charles V’s conflict with the Valois king of France, Francis I, became his most important political affair. Due to disputed lands, Charles V and Francis I began a series of skirmishes known as the Habsburg-Valois Wars which lasted for 24 years. When Charles V did not receive aid from the papacy, he was angered and Pope Clement VII feared his wrath and sided with the French. However, after Charles V conquered Rome, the pope realigned with Spain and Charles V secured his reign over most of Italy. The Ottoman Turks in the east, however, conquered Hungary and advance to Vienna where they withdrew.

Section 2-10: Politics in Germany

Towards the end of 1529, Charles V began to assess the Lutheran movement and other internal problems of Germany. Germany consisted of many independent city-states that owed their loyalty to the emperor, but had not done so and had no intention of doing so either. Charles V tried to find a solution to the growing Lutheran issue by demanding the Lutherans become part of the Catholic church. However, many German Lutheran imperial cities created an opposing force known as the Schmalkaldic League. Charles V was then occupied with battles with the Turks, Arabs, Barbary, and Valois Wars. Charles V eventually came to peace with both the Turks and French fifteen years later. It was then the Charles V launched an assault on the Schmalkaldic League who later aligned themselves with Henry VIII which caused Charles V to truce. The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 marked the end of religious warfare and Germany and finalized the separation of Lutheranism and Catholicism.

Section 3: The Spread of the Protestant Reformation

After Luther’s reformation others began to question which interpretation of the Bible that was correct and began to split into different sects of Christianity. The groups then continued on to wage war so as to defend their beliefs and unwilling to accept those of others.

Section 3-1: Lutheranism in Scandinavia

The Union of Kalmar in 1397 finalized the unified rule over Denmark, Norway, and Sweden under the king of Denmark. However, this unification brought about little unity between the three states and eventually faded and Christian II of Denmark’s throne was taken by Gustavus Vasa who appointed himself king of a new independent Sweden and began a Lutheran Reformation with led to the Swedish Lutheran National Church in 1530. A Lutheran Reform soon followed in Denmark and Norway which was instituted by Frederick I, king of Denmark, and his successor, Christian III. Frederick set up a Lutheran church that had the king as the religious authority. Scandinavia had become powerful Lutheran region with state-run churches.

Section 3-2: The Zwinglian Reformation

During the sixteenth century, the Swiss Confederation, a group of thirteen independent states, became independent from the Holy Roman Empire in 1499. Ulrich Zwingli, who resided in the Swiss Confederation, was a Christian humanist who became a priest in 1506 and later went on to the Great Minster of Zurich in 1518. He then began the Reformation in Switzerland by beginning to preach Gospel which raised a debate that was won by the Zwingli party.

Section 3-3: Reforms in Zurich

Zwingli’s Reform began with a Zwingli controlled city council that allowed the state to run church affairs. Zwingli’s reform included changes such as having a magistrate; destroying all relics, images, and idols; a new Mass that was replaced by reading, prayer, and sermons; no more music during service; and the abolishment of monasticism. Zwingli’s reform spread across Switzerland throughout 1528 until 1530.

Section 3-4: A Futile Search for Unity

During 1528, the Zwingli reformation was halted by Swiss forest cantons that opposed the reform and remained Catholic. Due to growing fears that Charles V would attempt to make use of the divided reformation, Zwingli, Martin Luther, and Martin Bucer met at the Marburg colloquy to create an evangelical reformation alliance between the Swiss and the Germans. The meeting ended in no agreement or alignment due to a disputed interpretation of the Lord’s Supper. In 1531, civil war broke out between the Zwingli reformers and the Swiss Catholic cantons. During the battle, Zwingli was killed and burned.

Section 3-5: Radical Reformation: The Anabaptists

While state authorities became increasingly involved in church affairs, others denied the sort of magisterial reformation and sought after a more radical movement. This group was known as the Anabaptists who were largely different but shared some common ideals and goals. Anabaptism was also quite appealing to peasant, weavers, and other lower-class men.

Section 3-6: The Ideas of the Anabaptists

The Anabaptists, though largely varied, had many key, common ideals which included the beliefs of only adult baptism an seeing the church as an association of baptized believers who had experienced a spiritual rebirth. The Anabaptists also followed early practices of Christianity and saw all members of the church as equals. They also believed in the affairs of church and state to be separated entirely. The Anabaptists were looked upon and a growing threat of radicals that needed to be halted by both the Protest and Catholic officials.

Section 3-7: Varieties of Anabaptists

The Swiss Brethren, a group of Anabaptists, began in Zurich and were expelled from Switzerland for their practice of adult baptism. However, they continued to extend their teaching throughout Germany, Austrian Habsburg lands, and Switzerland, where they suffered persecution and were eventually wiped out of Germany. Anabaptists then moved to Poland, the Netherlands, and Moravia. In 1530, Munster became an Anabaptist haven which slowly became ruled by those who followed millenarianism. The millenarian Anabaptists soon seize control of the city and expelled all those who did not follow their faith. They sought to create a New Jerusalem to be the kingdom of God during the Second Coming of Jesus. How, the Catholic prince-bishop of Munster soon amassed a force to regain control of the city and execute all radical Anabaptists. Soon, pacifist Anabaptists emerged and were known as Mennonites because of their spiritual Menno. The Mennonites slowly extended into northwestern Germany, Poland, Lithuania, and the New World.

Section 3-8: The Reformation in England

The Reformation in England was started when Henry VIII insisted on divorcing his wife, Catherine of Aragon, who was unable to bear him a son. Henry VIII attempted to get an annulment of his marriage from the pope but could not because the pope was now under the dominance of Charles V. Henry VIII grew impatient and obtain new advisors who told him to get a divorce in England’s own courts. Henry VII then went onto sever all papal authority from the English courts by getting Parliament to pass this act. In 1533, Henry VIII annulment to Catherine of Aragon was null and void and he now had a legitimate heir in the pregnant Anne Boleyn, who was now crowned queen. In 1534, Parliament finalized the severance of ties between the Church of England with Rome by passing the Act of Supremacy, which made Henry VIII “the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England.” Denying this was punishable by death.

Section 3-9: The New Order

Henry VIII went onto close down hundreds of monasteries and took their land and belongings which he sold to merchants and nobility to increase his treasury. Although the Church of England was severed from the papacy, Church doctrines and worship remained the same although others pushed for a reformation. Henry VIII became obsessed with having a heir and grew tired of Anne Boleyn and her inability to bear him a son, so he beheaded her. Henry VII then married Jane Seymour who bore him a sickly male heir, Edward VI who succeeded Henry VIII. However, because the child was a mere nine years old, a council regency controlled the kingdom. During this time, church officials began a small reformation towards protestantism and allowed clergy members to marry and well as instituted a new prayer book, the Book of Common Prayer. Later, Mary, daughter of Catherine of Aragon, rose to the throne.

Section 3-10: Reaction under Mary

Mary was devoted to Catholicism and intended to reconnect England to the Holy Roman Empire. Mary grew vastly unpopular as she reconnected with the Holy Roman Empire, married Philip II, son of Charles V, created a foreign alliance with Spain, lost Calais, and burned over 300 bodies of Protestant heretics which earned her the title “bloody Mary.” Mary’s intentions of restoring Catholicism had backfired and failed by her death in 1558.

Section 3-11: John Calvin and Calvinism

John Calvin was a Protestant reformer who was native to France and influenced by humanism as well as Lutheranism. In 1533, John Calvin had a spiritual awakening that convinced him of an inner guidance within himself that was God. After his awakening, he left Paris and went to Basel where he wrote his first volume of Institute of the Christian Religion, a novel about Protestantism and became one of the forerunners of Protestantism.

Section 3-12: Calvin’s Ideas

Many of Calvin’s doctrines where extremely similar to those of Lutheranism, but put more stress on the fact that God was the omnipotent ruler. One of Calvin’s own ideas was that of predestination, which stated that certain people where already chosen to damned or to be saved. His ideas gained vast popularity and created a body of an active faith of those who believed they were to be saved and had done God’s work. Calvinism became the militant international form of Protestantism. Calvin saw church as a means of teaching God’s sacraments and scriptures.

Section 3-13: Calvin’s Geneva

In 1536, Calvin began a ministry in Geneva that began the Ecclesiastical Ordinances. This act made both the clergy and laymen responsible for service in the Church creating a bond between government and the church. A Consistory also began which was a moral court that punished unruly acts and blasphemy with punishments that included excommunication, banishment, and public whippings. The level of success Calvin received in Geneva allowed the city to thrive and become a flourishing center of Protestantism. Missionaries from Geneva soon went out to extend Calvinism across Europe. By the mid-sixteenth century, Calvinism had replaced Lutheranism.

Section 4: The Social Impact of Protestant Reformation

Due to the fact that Christianity became a key part of European life, it also impacted education, family, and other religious practices.

Section 4-1: The Family

Catholicism always placed importance in family and marriage. Both Luther and Calvin agreed that men should abstain until married, and must marry if unable to abstain. The Reformation also brought about new changes that allowed the clergy to marry in Protestant churches which made family the center of human life. However, wives were expected to remain obedient and please the husband. Wives were also expected to bear and nurse children, and due to the abolishment of monasticism, this was their sole duty. However, Protestantism encouraged women to learn religion and morality during church and even girls schools were created. However, women remained in a subordinate position of society and did not receive intellectual educations.

Section 4-2: Education in the Reformation

The Reformation strongly impacted the education system of Europe. Protestant began to provide schools that stressed humanities as well as becoming literate to that worshippers could read the Bible for themselves. With this in mind, many christian humanists began to develop second schools the new concept of a private secondary school that taught antiquity, “gymnasium.”

Section 4-3: Religious Practices and Popular Culture

The Protestant Reformation led to the abolishment of many Catholic practices such as relics, sainthood, indulgences, pilgrimages, a celibate clergy, and monasticism. Many of these practices were replaced by individual and family prayer as well as collective worship. Other Protestant reformers such as the Puritans and Dutch Calvinists tried to eliminate holidays such as Christmas, drinking in taverns, and other forms of entertainment such as dancing. However, none of these attempts at reforming society were successful.

Section 5: The Catholic Reformation

During the mid-sixteenth century , Lutheranism was instituted in Germany and Scandinavia while Calvinism dominated France, the Netherlands, regions in eastern Europe, and Switzerland. Catholicism was losing its dominance over Christianity. However, a reformation within to Catholic Church began along with a revived papacy aimed at stopping the growing Protestant Reformation.

Section 5-1: Revival of the Old

Many old and new ideas were implemented in the Catholic Reformation. Many orders and religious brotherhood began to form again and many supported the reformation such as the Oratory of Love, which taught about self-betterment and philosophies supported by humanists such as Eramus, which was appealing to many humanists. Other religious practices such as mysticism were also revived during the Catholic Reformation. The unity of these religious orders and brotherhood was the first step to a revival of Catholicism.

Section 5-2: The Society of Jesus

The Jesuits, the members of the Society of Jesus, was a religious order assembled by Ignatius Loyola, a soldier who had been rendered unable to fight during battle, that pledged absolute obedience to the papacy. The Jesuits believed in exercising human will to become a soldier of God through absolute dedication. The Society of Jesus followed a strict hierarchy with a general as the supreme authority, under the pope, of course. Due to their absolute devotion to the papacy, the Jesuits became a crucial instrument to exercise papal policy and other affairs.

Section 5-3: Activities of the Jesuits

The Society of Jesus began to fight Protestantism by first establishing an extensive education system that borrowed from humanist ideas and became highly regarded. The Jesuits also began to spread Catholicism by converting many foreigners, including the Japanese, many Indians, and the Chinese. A forerunner of this activity was Francis Xavier, who drew many similarities between Catholicism and Confucianism to gain the favor of the Chinese. The efforts of Jesuits proved to successful as Catholicism was revived in sections of Germany, Poland, and regions in eastern Europe.

Section 5-4: A Revived Papacy

The papacy during Renaissance continued their involvement in the political, military related, and economical affairs of Italy, which led a to source of corruption within the Church. The Catholic Reformation sought to change these issues, and was done so by Pope Paul III. Paul III formed a commission to analyze the church’s issues in order to formulate a reform, which informed him of the church’s corrupt officials. A meeting to settle to religious differences between Catholicism and Protestantism was held, but was utterly unsuccessful. A new pope, Paul VI, came to power after Paul III’s death and began the Index of Forbidden books, which listed many books that involved Protestant theologies, that were to be left alone. Compromising with the Protestants soon became impossible.

Section 5-5: The Council of Trent

The Council of Trent was a committee organized by Pope Paul III to settle to differences between the Catholic and Protestant Churches to unify Christianity. However, due to many events, such as war between France and Spain, plague, and the changing of popes halted meetings. However, these meetings only reestablished old Catholic doctrines, except for the hawking of indulgences, and led to a strong opposition against Protestantism. This led to religious warfare between the Catholic and Protestant Churches.

Section 6: Politics and the Wars of Religion in the Sixteenth Century

During the mid-sixteenth century, Calvinism and Catholicism took offensive positions in spreading their religions. This strong conflict of religions, in addition to other political, economic, and social parties, led to religious, civil warfare in France.

Section 6-1: The French Wars of Religion (1562-1598)

Philip II, son and heir of Charles V, was a powerful militant Catholicism supporter. During his reign throughout the mid-sixteenth century, Philip II tried to organize the region he had received from his father, which included Spain, the Netherlands, regions in Italy, and regions in the New World. Philip II exercised the Spanish Inquisition to keep his kingdom devoted to Catholicism. Philip II also tried to centralize his government around himself, and failed to divide his government in order to maintain control of all of his land. Due to the costs of war, the Spanish economy which included many imports from the New World, was on a steady decline. Philip II’s attempt at making Spain a European superpower was a failure, his reign only led Spain into debt.

Section 6-2: Revolt of the Netherlands

The Spanish Netherlands were one of Philip II’s most prosperous regions and were a strong asset to Philip II’s kingdom. However, although Philip II technically controlled the Netherlands, he held no power there and needed to strengthen his command there. However, Philip II tried to convert the largely Protestant Netherlands to Catholicism, revolts broke out. Philip II sent troops led by the duke of Alva to silence the growing revolt. However, a counter-force formed by merchants, artisans, and Calvinists struggled to resist Philip II’s troops. After time, Philip II pulled his troops to end the revolt which proved to be expensive. After this, the Netherlands split into two Unions; the Union of Arras, Catholic and under Spanish rule; and the Union of Utrecht, Protestant and under the command of William of Orange.

Section 6-3: The England of Elizabeth

When Elizabeth’s half-sister Mary died, Elizabeth was the next to ascend to the throne and led England to become powerful Protestant nation and also a site of cultural renaissance.

Section 6-4: Religious Policy

The religious policy of England during Elizabeth’s reign was instituted by Parliament; a new Act of Supremacy that designated Elizabeth as supreme ruler politically and spiritually. Elizabeth also brought back the Book of Common Prayer but with modifications for Catholics. During Elizabeth’s reign she kept both the Catholics and Puritans, who opposed her policy, at bay and kept religious peace.

Section 6-5: Foreign Policy

Elizabeth’s position regarding foreign lands was being utterly neutral. While invisible to public eyes, Elizabeth supported piracy and raiding of Spanish fleets as well and French and Dutch Protestants in the Netherlands who opposed Spanish rule. However, Elizabeth’s involvement in Netherlands’ affairs soon became no secret and Philip II sent a Spanish fleet of warships to invade England.

Section 6-6: The Spanish Armada

The fleet of warships sent by Philip II were doomed from the start and were torn to pieces by English fleets and artillery. During their retreat, the Spanish fleets were battered by storms and were further weakened. The defeat the Spaniards suffered was a significant victory for England that allowed it to remain a Protestant nation.

Chapter 13
Reformation and Religious Warfare in the Sixteenth Century
Questions:

Christian humanism was very similar to Italian Renaissance humanism which focused on the study of classical antiquity and the classic literary work of Greece and Rome. However, the Christian humanists were also very religious, unlike the humanists of the Italian Renaissance. The Christian humanists believed that through self-improvement through education, a reformation could be achieved. This belief helped prepare for the Protestant Reformation because many Christian humanists sought after a reformation of the Catholic Church. Eramus’ works helped pave the way for Luther’s break with Rome and Catholicism by beginning to organize and formulate a reformation program for the Catholic. Eramus’ also help spread knowledge of the growing thoughts of reformation and the Catholic Church’s corrupted hierarchy through his book The Praise of Folly. In his novel, Eramus discusses the corrupted clergy of the Catholic Church in a humorous manner while effectively criticizing the Catholic Church. Eramus’ idea of the ideal reformation involved teaching Christianity as a guiding philosophy to everyday life rather than a regimented religious practice and worship. Eramus believed that Christianity was becoming blurred by all the sacraments and pilgrimages going on and that Christianity needed to focus on the original message of its Scriptures, the Bible. Eramus saw the reformation as a reformation within the church. His ideas paved the way for Luther’s break with Rome and the start of the Protestant Reformation.

Luther’s fundamental religious problem was that the Catholic Church’s idea of salvation was, in the eyes of Luther, false. This issue of faith became more and more evident to Luther as he continued to go to confession and confess his sins to priests. Luther began to question how a sinner could be forgiven by God, who was omnipotent and had pure justice. Luther began to study theology and came to the conclusion after years of studying and analyzing the Bible that humans can only be saved through having ultimate faith in God. Luther’s ideas differed from those of Catholicism in many ways. Following the beliefs of Catholicism, salvation is achieved by faith in God and doing good during one’s life while repenting one’s sins. Following the doctrines of Lutheranism, salvation is achieved by having total faith God. Luther argued that a man does not do good things to be a good man, but conversely, a good man does good deeds. Lutheranism’s doctrine of salvation also known as the doctrine of justification by faith, became the chief doctrine during the Protestant Reformation. Luther also preached that the Bible, as the primary scripture of Christianity, was to be the only guide to achieving religious salvation and truth.

Politics played a crucial role in the establishment of Lutheranism as Luther’s reformation became increasingly reliant on the favor and support of political rulers, princes, state authorities, and officials. In Germany, political disputes and the corruption of the Catholic Church aided Luther’s reformation movement by allowing his reformation to spread smoothly, and quickly without interference from the Holy Roman Emperor. In addition to these assets, many German political leaders, princes, and state authorities favored Lutheranism and the idea of a reformation within the Catholic Church. Due to the favor of many political leaders, state authorities, and princes who favored Lutheranism and the idea of a reformation within the Catholic Church, Lutheranism received a lot of support from German politics. With this asset on his side, Luther was able to get state authorities to issue a state-demanded church reform that was an effective conversion to Lutheranism. These new churches were also state run, so Luther did not have to worry about financing his new churches or other political matters that came with the reformation. In Scandinavia, a political chain of events occurred which resulted an overthrow of the monarchy of a new unification of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. This new leader, Gustavus Vasa, was a proud Lutheran reformer who led Sweden to independence, and then instituted a Lutheran reformation within the churches of newly independent Sweden. This Lutheran reform was made possible only by the political situation in Scandinavia. Soon after Sweden converted to Lutheranism, Norway and Denmark quickly followed with Lutheran reforms of their own. The king of the unified Norway and Denmark supported Lutheran preachers who spread Lutheran liturgy throughout the regions. With these powerful political leaders who supported Lutheranism, Luther’s reformation had transformed Scandinavia into a religiously unified Lutheran stronghold.

The chief ideas of Zwinglianism, Anabaptism, and Lutheranism, had certain key elements that connected them in a similar way. Zwinglianism, first established in Switzerland, focused on Scripture reading,, prayer, and sermons, as well as the removal of relics, decorations and paintings in church, music during worship, monasticism, pilgrimages, celibacy of the clergy, and the authority of the pope over Christianity, Lutheranism claimed the BIble to be the supreme authority over Christianity as the word of god. Lutheranism also preached that the pope was not the supreme authority, and that justification by faith was the way to salvation. Anabaptism focused on the idea that church was to be an association of Christian believers rather than a priesthood hierarchy. Anabaptists also believed in adult baptism as a show of faith to god after one was baptized as an infant. Zwinglianism, Lutheranism, and Anabaptism all focus on the Bible and other religious scriptures as being the supreme code of Christianity instead of the supreme authority of the pope. However, Zwinglianism also abolished all “religious distractions” such as monasticism while Lutheranism did not. Both Zwinglianism and Lutheranism also strongly opposed adult baptism while the Anabaptists had this as one of their key ideas. Lutheranism and Zwinglianism also differed on the interpretation of Bible such as the Lord’s Supper. Though all three of these sects of Christianity opposed Catholicism, they all had their own ideas and differences.

The English Reformation differed from the reformation in other countries in several ways that distinguished it, although it still ultimately caused a break with the Catholic Church. First of all, the reformation in England was initiated by a powerful monarch, Henry Tudor VIII, while the reformation in other countries was initiated by Protestant ideologists who gained support and eventually started churches of their own and broke away from the Catholic Church. However, in England, the reformation was initiated because Henry VIII wanted to divorce his first wife since she had not given him a male heir to the throne. Henry VIII then attempt to get an annulment from his marriage from the pope at the time. However, due to political ties and issues, the pope delayed the King’s request. Henry VIII grew restless and hired two new advisors to solve his issue. His advisors came to the conclusion that the fastest way to divorce his wife was to recieve and annulment in the courts of England instead of from those in Rome. Parliament that publicized the new legislation that had been put into place that severed all ties with Rome and papal authority in England’s churches. With this legislation in place, Henry VIII received his annulment promptly. Furthermore, Parliament also issued a new legislation dubbed the Act of Supremacy which stated that Henry VIII was the supreme authority in all churches of England and denying so was punishable by death. Although changes in religious practices did not take place in the churches of England, Henry VIII severed all ties with the Catholic Church and freed the churches of England from papal authority.

The chief ideas of Calvinism and the chief ideas of Lutheranism showed many similarities. The chief ideas of Calvinism were justification by faith, the omnipotent authority of God, predestination, and baptism. Many of these ideas were closely related to the doctrines of Lutheranism, such as justification by faith and the belief in salvation. However, Lutheranism put a much greater emphasis on the Bible as the guide to live life, while Calvinism also put great importance in the Bible, but put more emphasis on the “absolute sovereignty of God.” Calvinism’s stress of the law of predestination was also a new idea that did not stem from Lutheranism. Both Calvinism and Lutheranism interpreted the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper as the same idea. This idea was that the Lord’s Supper was to be taken in a spiritual sense, not a literal sense regarding Jesus’ flesh and blood. Although Lutheranism was a widely popular sect of Protestantism and had many ideas in common with Calvinism, Calvinism became the international form of Protestantism and was most widely accepted. This change occurred due to Calvinism’s doctrine of predestination which did not guarantee one’s salvation by simply being a Christian. Calvinism was a “dynamic and activist faith.” This is what gave Calvinism the edge it needed to overtake Lutheranism. The appeal of activism in religion was one of Calvinism’s greatest ideas that pushed it to become the international form of Protestantism.

The papacy, Council of Trent, and Society of Jesus all contributed to the revival of Catholicism. The papacy played a crucial role in the revival of Catholicism. By instituting a new reformation within the Catholic Church, the papacy began to establish old and new religious brotherhoods and orders to gain support and power throughout Catholic regions. The Jesuits, members of the Society of Jesus, made huge contributions to the spread of Catholicism and its revival. The Jesuits traveled to farther foreign regions such as India, Japan, and China to convert foreigners to Christianity. This gave Catholicism a whole new base of supporters and devotees. Along with their help in conversions, the Jesuits were absolutely faithful to the Catholic Church and were instrumental in enforcing papal policy and authority. The Council of Trent brought about meetings between Catholic and Protestant officials to help quell the religious tension between them. The Council of Trent was also crucial in organizing and initiating the Catholic Reformation and revising its old and new doctrines.

Chapter 13
Reformation and Religious Warfare in the Sixteenth Century
Vocabulary:

Desiderius Erasmus’s The Praise of Folly – Written to humorously censure the flaws in the Catholic Church, permitting the public to relinquish their adoption of the crimes, and register that through sensibleness and discernment that the mistreatments of the Catholic Church were completely clear.
Thomas More’s Utopia – Thomas More utilized this novel to communicate his point of view on the defects of economy, society, and other affairs concerning human etiquette. Utopia told of an island with a new social system of fairness with labor hours and recreational hours
Pluralism and Absenteeism – Pluralism was when church officials were overseeing multiple church offices to raise income. Absenteeism, an effect of pluralism, was when church officials were overseeing one office while other offices failed to accomplish their tasks.
The Sacraments – The Sacraments were practices that a Christian must honor to achieve salvation. Throughout the thirteenth century, these included penance, holy orders, confirmation of children, Eucharist or Lord’s Supper, marriage, baptism, and extreme unction.
Martin Luther – Martin Luther was a Protestant reformer who later became the father of Lutheranism and the initiator of the Protestant reformation. Martin Luther taught a new interpretation of the Bible and how to truly achieve salvation.
Salvation by Faith – A doctrine of Lutheranism that stated that salvation was not achieved by doing good deeds in God’s name, but by having faith in God and honoring the Bible and the sacraments of Protestantism.
Priesthood of All Believers – A Christian doctrine that was derived from passages in the New Testament.
Johann Tetzel and Indulgences – A powerful church official who advocated and sold indulgences, a purchase collected by that church that would repent the individual’s sins and guarantee their salvation.
Ninety-Five Theses – A flyer written by Martin Luther that is characterized as the beginning of the Protestant Reformation. The flyer mentioned 95 obvious corruptions within the Catholic Church and asked people to break form these corruptions.
The Edict of Worms – The legislation by the Reichstag which deemed Luther an outlaw within the Roman Catholic Empire.
The Peasants War, 1524 – The rebellion of peasants within Germany that extended throughout Europe. Peasants challenged their masters one their mistreatment and requested an alteration in laws, taxes, and other aspects of government involving poverty and slaves.
Transubstantiation 353 – A doctrine issued by the Roman Catholic Church that stated during the Eucharist bread and wine was turned into the body and blood of Christ.
Charles V – The Holy Roman Emperor who attempted to achieve religious unity within the Holy Roman Empire by means of religious authority and political dominance.
Pope Clement VII – Forced to aid Francis I during the second Habsburg-Valois War, he was quickly discovered as a traitor and Charles V’s army raided the Catholic Church in Rome. This raid was known as “The Sack of Rome.”
Peace of Augsburg- The end on religious warfare in 1555 in Germany. It also marked an important turning point in the history of the Reformation.
Ulrich Zwingli- The son of a prosperous peasant who went on to get a master of arts degree and was strongly influenced by Christian humanism. In 1506 he became a priest and began the Reformation in Switzerland.
Marburg Colloquy- A conference between the protestant political leaders and the Swiss and German reformed churches in 1529 to resolve their differences. The conference produced no agreement and no evangelical alliance.
Anabaptists, Munster- A collection of radicals around 1530 who rejected allowing the state to play an important role in church affairs. They believed that the true Christian church was a voluntary association of believers who had been baptized and undergone spiritual rebirth.
millenarianism- the opinion that armageddon is at hand and the kingdom of God is about to be created on earth.
Henry VIII’s wives- Catherine of Aragon, Henry VIII’s first wife, was unable to bear him a son so Henry VII attempted to divorce her. However, when he attempted to divorce her the pope delayed his annulment. Henry VII then went on to obtain an annulment in England’s own ecclesiastical courts.
Act of Supremacy- A law issued by Parliament in 1534 that completed the break of the Church of England with Rome by declaring that the king was “taken, accepted, and reputed the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England.” The English monarch now controlled the church.
Book of Common Prayer- A revised Protestant liturgy, prayer book, and liturgical guide created by the clergy who had been given the right to marry and the elimination of images by Parliament.
Edward VI and “Bloody Mary”- Edward VI, son of Henry VIII’s third wife, was the successor of Henry VIII. He was underage and sickly when born. “Bloody Mary” was the daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon and a catholic who intended to restore England to the Roman Catholic fold. When she came to the throne she married Philip II, future king of Spain, which caused widespread antipathy. Furthermore, when over three hundred protestant heretics were burned she was dubbed “bloody Mary.”
John Calvin- A determined Protestant reformer who was the father of Calvinism, which develops Luther’s doctrine of justification by faith alone and emphasizes the grace of God and the doctrine of predestination.
predestination- the belief, associated with Calvinism, the God, as a consequence of his foreknowledge of all events, has predetermined those who will be saved (the elect) and those who will be damned.
Geneva- The area where John Calvin took up a ministry and further spread Calvinism. He successful converted the Genevans and caused Geneva to become a vibrant center of Protestantism.
Protestant education- This new form of education caused by the Reformation gave a much wider audience of people an education. Protestant education sought to use humanist methods of teaching and create a semiliterate body of believers who could read the Bible. New secondary schools arose and taught Latin and Greek grammar as well as philosophy, Hebrew, and theology.
Puritans- A group of English Protestants inspired by Calvinist theology who wished to remove all traces of Catholicism from the Church of England.
Catholic Reformation- It was the rebirth of Roman Catholicism. It was intended to limit the spread of Protestantism.
Ignatius Loyola- He was the maker of The Society of Jesus. Because he could not be a real fighter, he promised to be a warrior of god.
Jesuits- A compact group of people that gave total compliance to the pope. They also brought the concepts of Catholic christianity to many non christians.
Pope Paul III- He continued renaissance papal policy. He was a crucial member in the reform and incorporated himself in politics and art.
Council of Trent- They were put together in 1545 to correct the religious quarrel caused by the Protestant uprising. Because of war in France and outburst of the plague they could not have consistent gatherings.
Huguenots and Saint Bartholomew’s Day- Huguenots or French Calvinists came from each level of society. On August 24,1572, the kings sentries killed Huguenot leaders and started a increase of fighting in which three thousand Calvinists were murdered over the duration of 3 days.
Henry IV and the Edict of Nantes- Henry IV claimed the throne after Henry III was murdered and turned to Catholicism when he registered that France wouldn’t take him. The Edict of Nantes proclaimed Catholicism as the official religion of France but gave the Calvinists the liberty to worship how they wished.
Philip II- He guided Spain to a new age of eminence politically and culturally. His objective was to establish Spain as an authority in Europe and to protect lands he obtained from his father.
The Battle of Lepanto- Happened in 1571 and was a remarkable triumph over a Turkish naval force.
the New World-The New World referred to the recently located Americas.
the Netherlands-They included 17 territories. They began thriving due to increased trade and a flourishing textile industry.
Union of Utrecht- A protestant association of the northern Dutch-speaking states that planned to object Spanish law. They were an opposing force to the Catholic Union of Arras.
Elizabeth-The half sister of Mary, Elizabeth seized the throne in 1558 and established the basis for a world power and guided Britain to become the most influential Protestant nation of Europe.
Spanish Armada-The Armada was a lack of success and was conquered by the English because they had quicker ships and superior cannons. The armada’s single chance at beating the English was a miracle.

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Author of the text: Kai Aichholz

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Italian Renaissance summary

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