A.P. U.S. History Notes

Chapter 1: “New World Beginnings”

Summary:
225 million years ago, Earth was one supercontinent (Pangaea) and ocean.  About 10 million years ago, the North America that we know today was formed (geographical shape).  The first discoverers of North America were nomadic Asians who wandered over here by way of an exposed land bridge from Russia to Alaska during the Ice Age.  Though they were hunters at first, by 5000 BC, they had become hunter-gatherers with a diet of basically corn.  Great pre-European Indian cultures included the Pueblos, the Iroquois, the Mound Builders, the Mayans, the Incas, the Aztec, and the Sioux, among others (map of tribes on pg. 8).  The Indians revered nature and land, and didn’t carelessly destroy it.  Everything was put to use.
In 1000 AD, Vikings discovered Newfoundland, but later abandoned it due to unfavorable conditions.  Europeans, though, slowly began to proliferate into non-European worlds starting around the 1400s.  After Marco Polo came back with stories of China and its riches, Europeans began to explore.  First, they set up settlements in Africa, near the coast, where they used African slaves to work on plantations.  In 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India, opening a sea route to the Far East. 
Complications and dangers of this eastern sea route influenced Christopher Columbus to sail west.  In doing so, he inadvertently discovered the Americas, though he never knew it.  The Portuguese were first to settle in America, but the Spanish later became the dominant nation in the Americas.  Spanish Conquistadores swept through Latin and South America, destroying the Aztecs and the Incas.  Meanwhile, Magellan’s crew sailed around the world in 1519, becoming the first voyage to do so.  As the chapter ended, Spain was very much in control of much of the Americas, though other countries were beginning to challenge the Spanish dominance.

Important People:

The Aztecs-

Native Americans who that lived in what is now Mexico and routinely offered their gods human sacrifices, these people were violent, yet built amazing pyramids and built a great civilization without having a wheel.

The Mound Builders-

Indians of the Ohio River Valley.

The Mississippian settlement-

At Cahokia, near present-day East St. Louis, Illionis, was home to about 40,000 people in at 1100 A.D.

Hiawatha-

This was legendary leader who inspired the Iroquois, a powerful group of Native Americans in the northeaster woodlands of the U.S.

The Norse-

These Vikings discovered America in about 1000 A.D., when they discovered modern-day Newfoundland.  They abandoned it later due to bad conditions.

Marco Polo-

Italian adventurer who supposedly sailed to the Far East (China) in 1295 and returned with stories and supplies of the Asian life there (silk, pearls, etc…)

Bartholomeu Días-

A Portuguese sailor, he was the first to round the southernmost tip of Africa, a feat he did in 1488.

Vasco da Gama-

In 1498, he reached India and returned home with a small but tantalizing cargo of jewels and spices.
Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile-
The wedded king and queen of Spain, their marriage united the previously non-existing country.

Christopher Columbus-

An Italian seafarer who persuaded Spain to give him three ships for which to sail west to look for a better route to India, he “discovered” America in 1492

Vasco Nuñez Balboa-

Discoverer of the Pacific Ocean in 1513.

Ferdinand Magellan-

In 1519, his crew began a voyage and eventually ended up becoming the first to circumnavigate the world, even though he died in the Philippines.  The sole surviving ship returned to Europe in 1522.

Ponce de León-

In 1513 and 1521, this Spanish Explorer explored Florida, searching for gold (contrary to the myth of his seeking the “Fountain of Youth”).

Francisco Coronado-

From 1540 to 1542, he explored the pueblos of Arizona and New Mexico, penetrating as far east as Kansas.  He also discovered the Grand Canyon and enormous herds of bison.

Hernando de Soto-

From 1539 to 1542, he explored Florida and crossed the Mississippi River.  He brutally abused Indians and died of fever and battle wounds.

Francisco Pizarro-

In 1532, he crushed the Incas of Peru and got lots of bounty.

Bartolomé de Las Casas-

A Spanish missionary who was appalled by the method of encomienda, calling it “a moral pestilence invented by Satan.”

Hernán Cortés-

Annihilator of the Aztec in 1519.

Malinche-

A female Indian slave who knew Mayan and Nahuatl, the language of the Aztec.

Montezuma-

The leader of the Aztecs at the time of Cortés’ invasion who believed that Cortés was the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl.

Giovanni Caboto-

AKA John Cabot, he explored the northeastern coaster of North America in 1497-98.

Giovanni da Verranzo-

An Italian explorer dispatched by the French king in 1524 to probe the eastern seaboard of U.S.

Don Juan de Oñate-

Leader of a Spanish group that traversed parts of Mexico, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas in 1598, he and his men proclaimed the province of New Mexico in 1609 and founded its capital, Santa Fe.

Robert de La Salle-

Sent by the French, he went on an expedition down the Mississippi in the 1680s.

Juan Rodriquez Cabrillo-

He explored the California coast in 1542 but failed to find anything of interest.

Father Junipero Serra-

The Spanish missionary who founded 21 missions in California, in 1769, he founded Mission San Diego, the first of the chain.

Key Terms & Words, etc…:
maize                          - the Indian word for corn
Conquistadores           - the Spanish word for “conqueror,” these explorers claimed much of America for Spain, slaughtering millions of natives in the process
encomienda                 - a euphemism for slavery in which Indians were given to colonists to be “Christianized.”
Día de la Raza                       - Spanish for Columbus Day.
Lake Bonneville          - massive prehistoric lake, all of which remains today in the form of the Great Salt Lake.
Treaty of Tordesillas   - treaty that settled Spanish and Portuguese differences in the Americas, Portugal got modern-day Brazil; Spain got the rest.
Popé’s Rebellion         - revolt in which Indians took over New Mexico and held control for nearly half a century.

Places and Countries:

Timbuktu-

Capital of the West African kingdom of Mali, a place located in the Niger River Valley.

Madeira, the Canaries, São Tomé, Pricipe-

Areas where sugar plantations were established by Portugal then Spain where African slaves were forced to work.

Potosí-

A rich silver mine in Bolivia that enriched Spain with lots of wealth.

Timeline:

c. 33,000 – 8000 BC	First humans come to Americas from land bridge connecting Asia and Alaska.
c. 5000 BC	Corn is developed as a stable crop in highland Mexico.
c. 4000 BC	First civilized societies develop in the Middle East.
c. 1200 BC	Corn planting reaches present-day American Southwest.
c. 1000 AD	Norse voyagers discover and briefly settle in Newfoundland (Vinland). Also, corn cultivation reaches Midwest and southeaster Atlantic seaboard.
c. 1100 AD	Height of Mississippian settlement at Cahokia
c. 1100 – 1300	Christian crusades arouse European interest in the East.
1295	Marco Polo returns to Europe from Asia.
Late 1400s	Spain unites.
1488	Díaz rounds the southern tip of Africa.
1492	Columbus land in the Bahamas.
1494	Treaty of Tordesillas between Spain and Portugal.
1498	da Gama reaches India. Cabot explores northeastern coast of North America for England.
1513	Balboa claims all lands touched by the Pacific Ocean for Spain.
1513 & 1521	Ponce de León explores Florida.
1519 – 1521	Cortés conquers Mexico for Spain, defeating the Aztecs.
1522	Magellan’s crew completes circumnavigation of the world.
1524	Verrazano explores eastern seaboard of Norh America for France.
1532	Pizarro crushes the Incas.
1534	Cartier journeys up the St. Lawrence River.
1539 – 1542	de Soto explores the Southeast and discoveres the Mississippi River.
1540 – 1542	Coronado explores present-day Southwest
1542	Cabrillo explores California coast for Spain.
1565	Spanish build fortress at St. Augustine.
Late 1500s	Iroquois Confederacy founded (according to Iroquois legend)
c. 1598 – 1609	Spanish under Oñate conquer Pueblo peoples of Rio Grande Valley.
1609	Spanish found New Mexico.
1680	Popé’s rebellion of New Mexico.
1680s	French expedition down Mississippi River under La Salle
1769	Father Junipero Serra founds Mission San Diego, in California.

Makers of America:

• Conquistadores included Hernán Cortes and Francisco Pizarro, who conquered the Aztecs and the Incas respectively.
• Within half a century of Columbus’ “discovery” of America, they had claimed, for Spain, territory that stretched form Colorado to Argentina.
• They spread from Cuba through Mexico and from Panama, south through Peru.
• As the Spanish crown tightened its grip on its colonies, though, the conquistadors lost more and more power.
• Most of them never achieved their dreams of glory, though a few received royal titles.
• Many of them married Indian women, creating a new class of people called mestizos.
• The mestizos formed a bridge between Latin America’s Indian and European races.

 

 

Chapter 1: New World Beginnings
*Identify and state the historical significance of the following:
1.) Christopher Columbus: Columbus was an Italian explorer and navigator who led four expeditions – sponsored by Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain – across the Atlantic Ocean in search of a faster route to Asia. Instead, finding the Americas (unknowingly), he established a permanent settlement on the island of Hispaniola. His endeavors sparked a European interest in the New World and began the Age of Exploration.
2.) Renaissance: The Renaissance was a cultural revival in Europe (centered in Italy) that spanned the 14th through 17th centuries. During this time period, an interest in classical art and literature emerged, encouraging the expansion of human potential (Humanism) and the questioning of previously held beliefs. The movement evoked a spirit of adventure and growth, enticing European monarchs to sponsor voyages to establish vast empires and spread Christianity.
3.) Mestizo: ‘Mestizo’ was a term used to describe a person of both European and Native American heritage. As European began to settle in the Americas, they established families and lives in the ever-expanding New World.
4.) Treaty of Tordesillas: The Treaty of Tordesillas was an agreement signed by Spain and Portugal in 1494 that separated the land of the New World along a ‘line of demarcation,’ the west of which belonged to Spain and the east of which belonged to Portugal.
5.) Conquistador: Conquistadores were Spanish or Portuguese explorers that colonized their nation’s respective empires. In search of wealth, these men subjugated native peoples, and unwittingly spread diseases that ravaged the native population.
6.) Giovanni da Verrazano: Verrazano was an Italian explorer sent to explore the eastern seaboard by France, another strong European power vying to gain a foothold in the New World.
7.) Iroquois Confederacy: The Iroquois Confederacy, or “League of the Iroquois,” was a military alliance between the Mohawk, Oneidas, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora tribes. The league originally competed with neighboring tribes for supremacy, and later with Europeans for control of the lucrative fur trade.
8.) St. Augustine, Florida: St. Augustine was a Spanish settlement (and fortress) in the northern regions the Spanish Empire established to fortify borders and to convert natives to Christianity. Founded in 1565, it became the oldest continually inhabited European settlement in the U.S.
9.) Ecosystem: An ecosystem is a naturally evolved network of living organisms in a given area. When Columbus and other European arrived in the New World, two highly different ecosystems clashed, bringing together life from very different areas. European animals, plants, and diseases were brought across the Atlantic to the New World, while native foods were brought home to the Old World to feed a rapid increase of population.
10.) Encomienda: The Encomienda was a legal system enforced by the Spanish Empire that subjected Native Americans to labor on the newly claimed European lands. This harsh treatment and enslavement of natives decreased the population and led to a demand of new labor from Africa.

*Answer the following questions to the best of your ability citing specific references from your reading assignment (Each question should be about one page in length):
1.) In what ways are the early (pre-1600) histories of Mexican and the present-day American Southwest understood differently now that the US is being so substantially affected by Mexican and Latin American immigration and culture?  To what extent should this now be regarded as part of our American history?
Long before the arrival of the European explorers in the ‘New World,’ the native peoples had already established complex settlements and civilizations across the Americas. Thousands of years ago, a massive ice age lowered the sea level, exposing the Bering isthmus. Then, the early ancestors of these native people followed game across land to North America. Over centuries, they slowly peopled the North and South American continents. Eventually, civilizations like the Aztec, Inca, and Maya Empires were brought into fruition.
In the present day and age, the U.S. is being considerably affected by Mexican and Latin American immigration. More and more people of Hispanic decent are settling in the U.S., thus the values, traditions, and cultures of these people are also becoming more and more prevalent in American society as well. The Spanish language is second most common language and is commonly taught in schools across the nation. Also, these people make up a substantial portion of the labor force of America, providing a base for the economy.
Now, the early histories of Mexican and present-day American Southwest are regarded as pertaining more to the development and advancement of the United States as an ethnically diverse and multicultural country. Hence, to a large extent, this should be regarded as a central aspect of American history and life.

2.) Why was the Old World able to dominate the New World?  What were the strengths and weaknesses of the Old World?  What were the strengths and weaknesses of the New World?
The “Old World” encompasses Europe, Africa, and Asia (collectively) and describes those areas as relating to the time before the discovery of the Americas. Thus the “New World” relates to the Americas following the arrival of Europeans. Beginning in the 15th century, the Age of Exploration was a period of time during which Europeans actively explored the globe and began accurately mapping the continents. This vivid interest in spreading out had numerous motives, including the acquisition of gold and precious resources, the spread of Christianity, and the humanist mindset of expanding human potential. Also, following the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Europe was forced to seek new trade routes to Asia, prompting them to journey east.
During this period of Exploration and Colonization (the claiming and subjugation of foreign lands and peoples), the Old World was easily able to dominate the New World. Europeans possessed vastly superior technology, and had the resources to utilize it. The Crusades had inspired the feeling of curiosity in many, and numerous people sought to attain wealth. In addition to arriving in vast numbers, the Europeans brought along deadly diseases, which decimated native populations – they had no resistance to them.
Though the Old World dominated in many areas, the New World did have some strengths. For example, Natives Americans had coalesced into various tribes over the centuries, forming complex alliances and claiming vast territories. In Mexico and South America, the large empires of the Inca, Aztec, and Maya peoples posed a great challenge to the Europeans. Nonetheless, the European technology was too powerful. A lack of communication between native peoples made it difficult to attack the foreigners, and the fact that no solid political states existed allowed Europeans to take over the Americas by dividing and conquering the native peoples.

Chapter 2: The Planting of English America
*Identify and state the historical significance of the following:

1. Pocahontas: Pocahontas was a Virginian Indian associated with the colonial settlement at Jamestown. She is remembered for saving the life of the Englishman John Smith from execution by her father, Chief Powhatan. She later became an intermediary between the natives and the settlers.
2. Powhatan: Powhatan is a Virginia Indian confederation of tribes. Chief Powhatan created the ‘organization’ by convening 30 tributary tribes, the territory of which occupied much of eastern Virginia – including the location of the Jamestown Colony.
3. John Rolfe: Rolfe was the husband of Pocahontas and the ‘father’ of the tobacco industry, thus becoming an economic savior of the colony. By developing methods for raising and curing tobacco, he ensured the economic security of the colony and created a large demand for tobacco in England.
4. Lord Baltimore: Baltimore created Maryland, the second plantation colony, but fourth English colony to be settled. Hailing from a prominent Catholic family, he was motivated by the desire to create a refuge of religious freedom for Catholics and to reap financial benefits.
5. Walter Raleigh: Raleigh was an English courtier and explorer known for popularizing tobacco in England. Favored by Elizabeth I, he was granted a royal patent to explore Virginia, paving the way for future English settlements in North America. He was also known for searching for El Dorado and popularizing the myth.
6. James Oglethorpe: Oglethorpe was the founder of the colony of Georgia. He was also a social reformer, set on moving Britain’s poor to the New World. As a military leader, he repelled Spanish attacks (hence Georgia’s reputation as a “buffer zone”) and saved it with financial aid from his personal fortune.
7. Humphrey Gilbert: Gilbert was the half-brother of Sir Walter Raleigh. He was an Adventurer, explorer, member of parliament, and soldier, he served during the reign of Queen Elizabeth and was a pioneer of English colonization in North America.
8. Oliver Cromwell: Cromwell was an English military and political leader. He later became Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England during the interregnum, or period between the rule of Charles I and James II (1649-1660). During this time, colonization was interrupted.
9. John Smith: Smith was an English explorer who played an important role in the establishment of the first English settlement in North America – the Jamestown Colony. He was the first to map the Chesapeake Bay area and surrounding New England. He also considerably helped save the colony during its earliest years.
10. John Wesley: Wesley was an Anglican theologian largely credited with the founding of the Methodist Church in England.
11. Francis Drake: Drake was an English navigator and captain, second-in-command in the fleet against the Spanish Armada. Also, he is known for executing the second circumnavigation of the globe.
12. William Penn: Penn was the founder of the Province of Pennsylvania. One of his main motivations was the desire for a region of democracy and religious freedom.
13. Henry VIII: Henry VIII was a prominent king of  England because during his reign, he chose to break from the Catholic Church (known as the English Reformation) when the pope refused to sanction his divorce from Catherine of Aragon. Following this, Catholics battled Protestants and sought religious freedom in the New World.
14. Elizabeth I: Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII, and the last monarch of the Tudor Dynasty. As a politique, she sought to subordinate religious uniformity to political stability.
15. George II: George was the last British monarch born outside Great Britain (Germany). The Georgia colony was named in his honor, launched by a group of high-minded philanthropists.
16. Nation-state: A nation-state is a sovereign state whose citizens or subjects are relatively homogeneous in factors such as language or common descent.
17. Joint-stock Company: A joint-stock company a company whose stock is owned jointly by the shareholders.
18. Slavery: Slavery was the practice of treating Native Americans or African Americans as property – and therefore items to be sold – in order to force them to labor. The development of industries like tobacco and sugar created an immense need for laborers.
19. Enclosure: The enclosure movement was the policy of closing off common land to make it private property. This was pursued in Britain during the 18th and 19th centuries. It resulted in many landless workers who sought financial security else ware.
20. House of Burgesses: The House of Burgesses was the first convening of elected representatives of English colonists in the New World. Created by the Virginia Company, its main purpose was to influence craftsmen to settle and work in the colonies.
21. Royal charter: A royal charter was a formal document granted by the monarchy (of England) that gave a right or power to an entity.
22. Slave codes: Slave codes were laws passed in the colonies that granted power to the owner of such slaves while simultaneously removing almost all rights and freedoms of affected slaves.
23. Yeoman: A yeoman referred to a man holding and cultivating a small landed estate, and thus qualified for certain rights and duties.
24. Proprietor: A proprietor was the owner of a business or holder of a property.
25. Longhouse: A longhouse was a type of long, narrow, single-room building – built by Native Americans - that housed clans/families before the arrival of Europeans.
26. Law of primogeniture: These laws declared that only the eldest sons were able to inherit landed estates.
27. Indentured servant: This was a term used to describe the practice of contracting to work for a certain amount of time, in exchange for transportation, food, clothing, lodging and other necessities. However, these servants were often treated as slaves.
28. Starving time: The “Starving Time” was a period of time from 1609-1610 during which many of the colonists at Jamestown (Colony of Virginia) died. A lack of water and a dry rain season drastically hurt agricultural production.
29. Surplus: A surplus is a greater supply then demand, as in money, labor, or food.
30. Maryland Act of Toleration: This 1649 act required the religious toleration for Trinitarian Christians.
31. Virginia Company: This was a joint-stock company chartered by James I to search for gold in the New World and to search for a passage to the Indies.
32. Iroquois Confederacy: The Iroquois Confederacy, or “League of the Iroquois,” was a military alliance between the Mohawk, Oneidas, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora tribes. The league originally competed with neighboring tribes for supremacy, and later with Europeans for control of the lucrative fur trade.
33. Jamestown: This was a settlement in Virginia – the first permanent English settlement in North America. It struggled in its early years, but later became a thriving tobacco colony.
34. Protestant Reformation: The Reformation was a religious movement that began in Northern Germany during the 16th century. Spawned by Martin Luther, these ‘Protestants’ objected to the misdemeanors of the Catholic Church and sought to establish their own church.
35. Powhatan’s Confederacy: Powhatan’s Confederacy is a Virginia Indian confederation of tribes. Chief Powhatan created the ‘organization’ by convening 30 tributary tribes, the territory of which occupied much of eastern Virginia – including the location of the Jamestown Colony.
36. Chesapeake: Chesapeake Bay is the largest statuary in the U.S.  and was a major site of exploration and colonization in the New World.

*Answer the following questions to the best of your ability citing specific references from your reading assignment (Each question should be about one page in length):
1.  Where the English colonizers crueler or more tolerant than the Spanish Conquistadores?  Why did the Spanish tend to settle and intermarry with the Indian population, whereas the English killed the Indians, drove them out, or confined them to separate territories?  How did this pattern of interaction affect both white and Indian societies?
It is recognized that although both the Spanish and the English took over the lands of the Native Americans, the English colonizers were crueler than the Spanish Conquistadores during their respective periods of imperialization. While the Spanish settled in South America and the southern portion of North America and intermingled with Native Americans, the English settlers forcefully annexed land from the Natives, and continued to push them from their land until their defeat in the American Revolution.
The Spanish conquistadores were mercenaries paid by European monarchs to explore the New World in search of gold and other valuable resources. As the Spanish put the Native Americans to work, they settled down with them, and intermarried. They also sought to spread Christianity by educating native peoples. The Spanish conquistadores’ prime motivation was gold, and thus left large areas of explored land (without precious metals) alone.
The English, on the other hand, sought to seize land directly from the Natives in an attempt to find and acquire resources in North America. Relations between the colonists and Natives were often tense because starving colonists often took to raiding Indian villages for food and supplies. These raids dramatically reduced native populations and drove these people further and further west, out of their home.

2.  Was the development of African slavery in the North American colonies inevitable?  How would the North American colonies have been different without slavery?  What role did the Spanish Encomienda system and British sugar colonies play in introducing slavery to the southern colonies?
In American history, slavery is often regarded as a large part of society. When the English settlers came to the New World and established permanent colonies, they needed a large labor force to sustain the developing industries. At first, they turned to the Native Americans, but overwork and disease quickly decimated the population. Finally, they began to trade weapons and goods to West African chiefs in exchange for slaves (who were usually prisoners of war). These people were brought to the New World to work on large farms and plantations, where proprietors gradually developed a dependence on African slavery to meet economic demands. Millions of Africans were brought to the Americas where they provided the financial backbone for the emerging colonies.
Without slavery, the development of the North American colonies would have been radically different. Large farms and plantations would not have been able to develop, thus not allowing a large population or sense of American identity to develop. The colonies would not have spread over such a large area and would not have developed enough financially to be independent from England.
The Spanish Encomienda system granted Spanish settlers large plots of land and the labor of the Natives living on it. Because the labor of Native Americans was not an option for the British, they used African slaves. However, seeing the Spanish advancement, the British were enticed to develop their own colonies in the New World and rival Spain as a European and colonial power.

Chapter 3: Settling the Northern Colonies
*Identify and state the historical significance of the following:

1. Anne Hutchinson: was a notable Puritan participant in the Antinomian Controversy (1636-1638) in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Her intense religious ideas conflicted with the previously established Puritan clergy in the Boston area.
2. Roger Williams: was a Protestant theologian and supporter of religious freedom. Advocating the separation of church and state, he created the colony of Rhode Island (Providence Plantation) to provide a safe haven for religious minorities.
3. William Bradford: was a Separatist leader of colonists at the Plymouth colony in Massachusetts known for being the first to designate Thanksgiving in the U.S.
4. Thomas Hooker: was an eminent colonial leader (Puritan) who founded the colony of Connecticut following a dispute with Puritans in Massachusetts.
5. William Penn: was an English entrepreneur recognized for the foundation of the Province of Pennsylvania. As an advocate of religious freedom and democratic governments, he pursued good relations with Native Americans.
6. John Winthrop: was a Puritan lawyer famous for playing a large role in the founding of the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
7. King Philip (Metacom): was a wart chief of the Wampanoag Indians during King Philip’s War – the far-reaching Native American Uprising against English colonists in New England.
8. John Cotton: was a member of the early clergy in Massachusetts known for devoting copious amounts of time to defending the government’s duty to enforce religious rules.
9. Sir Edmund Andros: was an adept English military man. Because of his public association with the Church of England, colonists despised him. Also, he vastly limited their autonomy by curbing town meetings and restricting freedom of speech.
10. William & Mary: were the principle ‘players’ in the Glorious (Bloodless) revolution. Following the overthrow of Catholic James II, Parliament offered the throne to William III and Mary.
11. Myles Standish: was an English military officer in the Plymouth colony (arriving on the Mayflower) who was a leader in the administration of the Plymouth colony from the time of its creation.
12. Martin Luther: was a German theologian famous for noting the flaws of the Catholic Church and publicly protesting them. His actions sparked the Protestant Reformation.
13. Squanto: was a Patuxet Native American who helped the Pilgrims during their first winter in the New World, and played an integral role in their survival.
14. The “elect”: was a tenet of Calvinism, a Christian sect that developed during the Reformation. These “elect,” or chosen few, were the people that were already predetermined to be saved upon their death.
15. Predestination: the Calvinistic belief that a few select people are already chosen to be saved. It is unique to Calvinism.
16. Freemen: were adult white males that belonged to Puritan congregations (later the Congregational Church) who were allowed the right to vote. Unchurched men and women were denied this right.
17. “Visible saints”: were people appearing to be “godly” Christian people destined for heaven upon death, and were viewed highly in Puritan communities.
18. Conversion: was the “receipt of god’s free gift of saving grace,” sought after fervently by Calvinists.
19. Antinomianism: the view that Christians are released by religion from the obligation of observing the moral law.
20. Salutary neglect: was an unofficial British policy to avoid harsh enforcement of parliamentary decrees, meant to maintain a close relationship with the colonies.
21. “City upon a hill”: was a statement by Governor Winthrop; the Puritan bay colonists believed they had a covenant with god to create a holy society to be a model for other cultures.
22. Pilgrims: a group of English Puritans that fled religious persecution by sailing to New England in the Mayflower and founded the colony of Plymouth.
23. New England Confederation: was an incompetent alliance between the English colonies of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven. It was established in 1643, with the goal to unite the Puritan colonies against the Native Americans.
24. Calvinism: the Protestant theological system designed by John Calvin. It uses and modifies the doctrines of Luther (justification by faith alone and predestination).
25. Massachusetts Bay Colony: was an English colony in New England in the region of present-day Massachusetts and a leading member of the other colonies in terms of commerce and government.
26. Dominion of New England: was an administrative conjunction of the English colonies across North America. It failed because the territory was too large for a single governor to manage, and because the governor was highly unpopular with colonists.
27. Navigation Laws: were laws that limited foreign trade between the colonies and other European nations besides England. The ultimate goal was to elicit favorable trade with the colonies and promote colonial development.
28. Great Migration: the movement of English settlers, especially Puritans, to Massachusetts and the West Indies. The family groups were primarily motivated by the aspect of freedom to practice the Puritan religion.
29. Glorious Revolution: was the bloodless overthrow of James II (publicly Catholic). In 1688, Parliament invited William III and Mary (the daughter of James) to take the throne. It proved that an improvement in government did not have to constitute violence.
30. Puritans: a group of English Protestants (in the 16th and 17th centuries) who viewed the English Reformation as being incomplete and sought to simplify and regulate forms of worship.
31. Separatists: Pilgrims and other 16th and 17th century English Puritans who advocated complete separation from the Church of England.
32. Quakers: members of a Christian movement brought into fruition by George Fox that was devoted to peaceful principles. They rejected set forms of worship, formal ministry, and service in military institutions.
33. Mayflower Compact: was the document governing Plymouth Colony, written by the separatists fleeing religious persecution from the monarchy of England.
34. Fundamental Orders: were documents that described the government and political workings of Connecticut. It gave men more voting rights and eligibility for elected positions.
35. Church of England: the English sect of the Western Christian Church. It brings together both the Catholic and Protestant traditions, rejects the pope's authority, and has the monarch as its titular head.
36. Plymouth Bay: is a small bay off the coast of Massachusetts that is historically significant because of the landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth Rock; the travellers of the Mayflower then established the first permanent Northern European settlement in North America.
37. Penn’s Woodland: was a name for Pennsylvania in honor of Admiral William Penn, whose son, William Penn, was the founder of the colony. It became a haven for Quakers and other religious minorities in 1682.

 

*Answer the following questions to the best of your ability citing specific references from your reading assignment (Each question should be about one page in length):
1.  Did the Puritans really come to America seeking religious freedom?  How did they reconcile their own religious dissent from the Church of England with their persecution of dissenters like Hutchinson and Williams?  Does their outlook make them Hypocrites?
The Puritans were members of a group of English Protestants during the 16th and 17th centuries that viewed the English Reformation as incomplete. They perceived the Church of England as having too many ties with the Catholic Church, and therefore sought to simplify and control forms of worship. They were viewed as Separatists and migrated to the New World in search of freedom from religious persecution. These Pilgrims travelled on the Mayflower and reached Massachusetts in 1620. There, they established Congregationalist Churches and spread their Puritan religion.
The Puritans developed the belief that their group contained the select few (“the elect”) that would go to heaven, and consequently looked down upon and even persecuted those of a different mindset. Once the Puritans had settled down in New England, they desperately sought out heretics and removed their influence from their society. Hence, their practices had made them hypocritical. While fleeing Europe in search of religious freedom, they had become what they loathed.
Dissenters like Anne Hutchinson (of the Antinomian Controversy) who challenged the Puritan society of the Massachusetts Bay Colony were tried, convicted, and banished from the colony. Although the Puritans (Pilgrims) are often remembered as harbingers of religious freedom in history, upon attaining their hold in the New World, they were quick to discriminate and persecute others who did not agree with their mindset, ultimately making them hypocritical. 
2.  How does the founding of the New England colonies compare with the origin of the middle colonies?
The New England Colonies were primarily founded on the basis of religious freedom. The Puritans (Separatists) faced persecution and intolerance in England, because they believed that the English Reformation was incomplete. Seeing too many ties with the Catholic Church, they sought a place where they could practice their faith, and consequently travelled to the New World on the Mayflower as Pilgrims, and arrived in Massachusetts. Later, religious dissent ultimately led to the foundation of the other colonies. Rhode Island (Providence Plantations) became one of the few colonies to accept religious toleration. The economies of the New England Colonies were based on shipbuilding, fishing, and small, family-owned farms.
On the other hand, the Middle Colonies were established on a more financial basis. Hoping to attain wealth, entrepreneurs from England ventured out to explore with a charter granted by the Virginia Company of London. Then, in 1607, Jamestown became the first permanent English establishment in the New World. It was a settlement based on economic opportunity and entrepreneurship. The Middle Colonies were the most ethnically and religiously diverse; there was much influence from Dutch, French and German peoples, along with English. As a consequence, there was a greater degree of toleration for different ethnicities and religions. New York, New Jersey, and Delaware were founded with the incentive of profit and economy, and developed into large ports. The land was more arable in this area, allowing larger farms to emerge. Trading contributed to the growth the Middle Colonies and their cities, like Philadelphia and New York.
Chapter 4: American Life in the Seventeenth Century
*Identify and state the historical significance of the following:

1. William Berkeley: was a governor of Virginia, the owner of the Green Spring Plantation, and he toyed with growing silkworms to enhance the tobacco industry. Berkeley was diplomatic toward the Native Americans who revolted against planters in 1676 which; it became known as “Bacon's Rebellion.”
2. Nathaniel Bacon: was a member of the Virginia Colony, and is recognized as the catalyst of Bacon's Rebellion in 1676. He led the participants against the Native Americans after they attacked colonists.
3. William Bradford: was an English Separatist leader of settlers at Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts. Bradford is credited as the first civil authority to designate what popular American culture now views as Thanksgiving in the United States.
4. Indentured servitude: was a term used to describe the practice of contracting to work for a certain amount of time, in exchange for transportation, food, clothing, shelter, and other necessities. However, these servants were often treated as slaves.
5. HeadRight System: A headright is a grant of land to settlers. Headrights are remembered for their role in the expansion of the Colonies. The Virginia Company of London gave headrights to settlers, and were also given to anyone willing to help populate the colonies or pay for the transportation costs of an indentured servant.
6. Jeremiads: were moralistic texts that criticized society for its sinfulness, and predicted its downfall. It was a common literary device for the Puritans, notably in sermons like "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God" by Jonathan Edwards.
7. The Middle Passage: was the stage of the triangular trade during which slave ships transported millions of African slaves from West Africa to the West Indies to labor on plantations.
8. Witch-hunts: were searches for “witches” or anything related to them. As examples of mass hysteria, widespread panic, and mass lynching were involved. From around 1480 to 1750, an incredibly large number of people were executed and persecuted in both Europe and North America for their supposed affiliation with witchcraft.
9. Yankee ingenuity: was a term used to describe the self-reliance of early colonial settlers of New England. It’s representative of innovation, adaptation and perseverance when faced with a lack of materials.
10. Family Stability: children grew up in healthy environments in long-living families, It was reflected in a low number of premarital pregnancies and a strong social structure in New England.
11. Bacon’s Rebellion: Indentured servants, poor whites, and poor blacks rose up because they did not agree with Governor William Berkeley's diplomatic policies towards the Native Americans. When he refused to retaliate to Indian attacks, they attacked Native Americans, and ousted Berkeley from Jamestown.
12. Leisler's Rebellion: was an uprising in the 17th century colony of New York, during which the German-American merchant/militia captain Jacob Leisler usurped control of the colony's south and ruled over it from 1689-1691. It reflected colonial detest against the policies of King James II.
13. The Half-Way Covenant: was an arrangement that modified the “covenant,” or arrangement between the church and its followers, to admit to baptism (but not a full communion) the unconverted children of members.
14. New England Primer: was the first reading primer (an elementary textbook that serves as an introduction to a subject of study or is used for teaching children to read) for the colonies. It was the most successful educational textbook at the time and it was the foundation of most schooling before the 1790s.

*Answer the following questions to the best of your ability citing specific references from your reading assignment (Each question should be about one page in length)
1.  Why was family life in New England so different from family life in the South?
Life in the New England Colonies was vastly different than life in the Southern Colonies. New England Colonies were primarily founded on the basis of religious freedom. Hence, when the Puritans came to the New World to practice their faith, the society they created was deeply involved in religion. Families were tight-knit and Church was a part of everyday life. People who did not agree with the Puritan mindset were generally excluded from their society. Also, the “Protestant Work Ethic” was a large part of their lives. Believing profit and hard work to be important and necessary – rather than the Catholics – they encouraged economic growth. The economies of the New England Colonies were based on shipbuilding, lumber, fishing, and trade. So, children were taught skills that pertained to these trades.
Life in the Southern Colonies was quite different than that of the Northern Colonies. The colonists’ lives were based on large plantations, where large families lived on each plot of land. A larger expanse of land also meant that there were fewer interactions between groups of people. The economy of the south was largely based on farming, as the arable land was perfectly suited to growing cash crops like tobacco, cotton, corn, and sugar. In the south, labor was divided more severely because of gender, and slavery was a part of everyday life. Because farming was essential, children were taught skills to prepare them for a life of growing crops for profit. The goods produced in the south were often sent to the north, where they would be used for trading. Thus, life in the south was vastly different than life in the north.

 

2.  Were the Salem Witch trials a peculiar, aberrant moment in an age of superstition, or did they reflect common human psychological and social anxieties that could appear in any age?        
The Salem Witch Trials encompassed the time period from 1692-1693, during which, numerous trials and prosecutions of alleged witches occurred. Although many view these events as a peculiar moment in a time of superstition, the Trials themselves represented human psychological and social anxieties that could appear at any time. The Trials occurred when the colonies were just starting out, and struggling to survive. Food was often scarce, and supplies ran low. The Puritan society (mostly based in the upper New England Colonies) was unaccepting of those who stepped outside their realm of beliefs, and often sought to remove these ‘negative influences’ from their lives. Also during this early period, religion still had a firm hold on the lives of the colonists. So, the belief in “spirits,” “magic,” and satanic influences convinced them of otherworldly meddling.
These “witches” that were sought out often had psychological issues like schizophrenia or dementia. People with no knowledge of this considered it strange and demonic. Another human cause would be the acting out of young girls. Girls would sit at home and study, read the bible, do chores, and grow up without a childhood. As they got older, they sought out attention by claiming the existence of ‘witches,’ and were praised for helping the community.
The outbreak of witch-hunts and the Salem Witch Trials can be attributed to human psychological and social anxiety. A lack of scientific knowledge, jealousy, and religious influences were all prorogated by people to find and destroy these ‘witches.’

3.  Why did slavery grow to be such an important institution in colonial America?  What were the effects of slavery on the Africans who were brought to the New World?  What were the effects of the Africans on the New World?
As the colonies grew and the Americas were settled, a larger and larger labor force was needed to work. When the Europeans arrived, they originally looked to the Native Americans to labor for them. For example, the Spanish used the Encomienda system to obtain land and the labor of the Natives who lived on it. However, the Europeans brought deadly diseases with them, which quickly annihilated the Native populations. Thus, they looked else ware for a supply of laborers, and set their sights on Africa.
Europeans traded goods and supplies to West African tribal chiefs, who in turn provided slaves (who were often prisoners of war) to the European. Gradually, as the colonies industrialized, the colonists became dependent on the slaves for profit. A “triangular trade” developed, in which crops and other commodities from the New World were sent to Europe, then traded for slaves, which were then sent to the Americas to labor.
Millions of Africans were brought to the New World, where they had families, learned English, and adopted Christianity. Even though they outnumbered the colonists, they were still dominated over. For centuries, they were forced to labor on farms and plantations to provide the economic base for the agricultural industry. These poor African Americans became a part of American society and history. Their struggle was one of the most prominent movements ever, and their strife will be remembered as help founding the economy of the U.S.

Chapter 5: Colonial Society on the Eve of Revolution
*Identify and state the historical significance of the following:

1. Jonathan Edwards: was a Christian preacher and theologian. Edwards was widely recognized as America's most eminent philosophical theologian, and one of America's greatest intellectuals.
2. Benjamin Franklin: was one of the leading “Founding Fathers” of the U.S. Franklin was a famous author, Politian, scientist, inventor, and diplomat. He is remembered as “The First American" for his campaign for colonial unity. Essentially, he exemplified the emerging American nation. Franklin was known for encouraging hard work, education, self-government, and opposition to authoritarianism.
3. George Whitefield: was an Anglican priest who spread the Great Awakening in England, and North American colonies. He was one of the founders of Methodism and of the evangelical movement. He was one of the most widely known figures in colonial America.
4. John Peter Zenger: was a German-American printer, and journalist in New York City. He defended the notion that truth was a defense against charges of libel, and essentially put down the foundation for freedom of the press in America.
5. John Trumbull: was an American artist. He is remembered for his paintings of the American Revolution (especially “The Declaration of Independence” (1796)), and many portraits of George Washington.
6. Charles Wilson Peale: was an American painter, soldier and naturalist. He is best remembered for his portrait paintings of leading figures of the American Revolution, as well as establishing one of the first museums.
7. Benjamin West: was an American painter, and a resident in Britain from 1763. He was a historical painter for George III.
8. Paxton Boys: were Irish colonists from the Susquehanna River who formed a vigilante group to attack the Native Americans after Pontiac’s Rebellion and the French and Indian War.
9. [First] Great Awakening: was a period of religious revival in America from the 1730s – the 1750s. The leaders of the movement included George Whitefield and Jonathan Edwards. Ministers from various evangelical Protestant sects supported it.
10. Anglicans: members of the Church of England – a Protestant Sect of Christianity – and recognize the monarch as the head of the church.
11. Regulator Movement: (War of Regulation) was an uprising in North Carolina from 1765-1771. During this time, colonists rose up against corrupted officials. It is considered a minor catalyst for the Revolutionary War.
12. Triangular Trade: was the trade that involved shipping goods from Britain to West Africa to be exchanged for slaves, these slaves being shipped to the West Indies and exchanged for sugar, rum, and other commodities, which were in turn shipped back to Britain.
13. Molasses Act: (1733) was passed by that imposed a tax on imports of molasses from non-British colonies. The purpose of the act was to regulate trade by making British products relatively more cost effective than products from the French West Indies.
14. Congregational Church: were Protestant Christian churches that practiced their faith independently, where each congregation ran its own affairs. Members of these churches were often discriminated against. For example, the Separatists (Puritans) left England to pursue religious freedom. These churches were often established in Massachusetts and surrounding New England.
15. Heresies: were beliefs or theories that differed greatly from previously established beliefs in a religious institution. Historically, people who committed these acts were often harshly punished and/or executed.
16. Old Lights: were Orthodox clergymen who were critical of the emotionalism and ‘theatrical antics’ of the revivalists.
17. New Lights: were ministers who defended the Awakening for rejuvenating the American religious institutions.

*Answer the following questions to the best of your ability citing specific references from your reading assignment (Each question should be about one page in length)
1.  How were the various occupations and activates of colonial America related to the nature of the economy?  Why were occupations like lawyer, printer, and artisan taking on greater importance?
As is the case in all nations and regions, the geography of the area ultimately shapes the culture and lifestyle of people living there. The British colonies in North America are no exception to this, and the colonists’ lifestyles reflected the geography in which they settled. People who settled in the north were faced with a rocky terrain, rugged coastline, and heavily forested woodlands. Because of this, the economies of the New England Colonies were based on lumber, shipbuilding, and trade. These occupations were help in importance in these areas, and were treated as such. The Middle Colonies, however, had geography similar to both the north and south. The land was more arable, but still able to situate trading centers on the water. The Southern Colonies had wide-open grasslands and vast expanses of arable land that allowed a thriving economy of agriculture to develop. Hence, in the south, farmers were successful. The cultivation of cash crops like tobacco, sugar, cotton, and corn provided the economic backbone for the Southern Colonies.
As people settled down and secured a stable food supply, specialized occupations became more relevant and important to society. As the quality of life increased, colonists desired more luxurious items that an artisan could provide. As newspapers and other forms of written communication developed, printers were viewed more highly. And, as colonists began to feel a sense of independence and self-governance, lawyers became vital to establishing colonial independence.

2.  What were the causes and effects of the Great Awakening?  How did such an intense religious revival affect those who experienced “conversion” as well as those who did not?  How did the Awakening help to create a sense of shared American identity?
The first “Great Awakening” was a period of religious revival in America from the 1730s – the 1750s. The leaders of the movement included George Whitefield and Jonathan Edwards. It was characterized by large religious revitalizations that were led by evangelical Protestant ministers. As scientific research was going on in Europe (the Enlightenment) devoted religious Christians felt that the more humans revealed about the nature of the universe, the less of the connection with god and the more they would control their own destiny, rather than divine intervention. A specific catalyst of this would be the release of Newton’s Principia Mathematica, which put traditional religious formulations under pressure. The effects of the “Great Awakening” included a revived sense of religious purpose, greater emphasis on education, various Christian sects grew in size and importance, and religion once again became a large part of life.
The “Great Awakening” also served to help create a shared sense of American identity. Around 4/5ths of Americans were brought to a common understanding of Christianity, creating a common ground for many colonists. Thus, Americans in the north and south shared a common evangelical way of life. More churches emerged, and allowed more colonists to become part of a community. Moral values were reinforced, promoting a healthier society. Because of the stress of education, more colonists became literate, allowing for the advancement of the colonies towards becoming an independent nation. So, essentially, the “Great Awakening” revived religion across the colonies and gave many people a sense of community and common awareness.

 

3.  What characteristics did the Scots-Irish develop from their history BEFORE arriving in America?  How did their American experience relate to that earlier history?

The United States is often described as a ‘melting pot’ of different peoples, cultures, ethnicities, ideas, and societies from around the globe. People from nearly every country have immigrated to the U.S. and established lives and families, passing down their traditions across the generations. A large number of people have immigrated to the U.S. from Ireland and Scotland, especially during the nation’s early years as a colony.
The Scots and Irish were likely to be especially eager patriots in the American Revolution because they – like the Puritans – struggled with being an outcast in English society. They fought with the Anglican Church, resulting in resentment towards the king of England (the head of the Anglican Church). The people of Scotland and Ireland were previously considered outsiders within the British Empire. Thus, before arriving in America, they considered themselves independent of the British.
In America, they were eager to settle in the West, in an attempt to remove themselves from the British colonists. Even before their arrival in the New World, the Irish and Scots were poor. They lived in poverty; the British imposed heavy taxes and regulated the resources in their empire. They immigrated to America in search of new opportunities and financial security, but many lived in poverty in the New World as well.

Chapter 6: the Duel for North America
*Identify and state the historical significance of the following:

1. William Pitt: was a British statesman of the Whig party who led Britain for the duration of the Seven Years' War (French and Indian War).
2. James Wolfe: was a British general and one of the leaders of the expedition sent to seize Canada, he attacked Quebec (the capital), in 1759. He was fatally wounded while leading his troops to victory.
3. Edward Braddock: was a British soldier and commander in chief of the British forces in America in 1754.
4. Antoine Cadillac: was a French soldier and colonialist. He founded military posts at Mackinac and Detroit, and served as governor of Louisiana.
5. Pontiac: was an Ottawa Indian chief. He created and organized a rebellion against the British, at Fort Detroit from 1763–64. He agreed to terms of peace in 1766.
6. Benjamin Franklin: was one of the leading “Founding Fathers” of the U.S. Franklin was a famous author, Politian, scientist, inventor, and diplomat. He is remembered as “The First American" for his campaign for colonial unity. Essentially, he exemplified the emerging American nation. Franklin was known for encouraging hard work, education, self-government, and opposition to authoritarianism.
7. George Washington: was the first president of the U.S., Commander in chief of the Continental Army, and followed a policy of neutrality in international affairs and of expansion on the domestic front.
8. Huguenots: were French Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries. The Huguenots – mostly Calvinist – were subjected to extreme persecution at the hands of Catholics (the majority), and many emigrated from France to North America.
9. Seven Years War (French and Indian War): (1756-1763) was a struggle between Britain and France for supremacy in the Americas. The British made substantial gains over France, capturing French Canada and dominating the French in India. The Treaty of Paris ended the war 1763, leaving Britain the supreme European naval and colonial power.
10. Albany Congress: was a meeting of representatives from seven of the colonies in 1754. They met in Albany, New York from to discuss the improvement of relations with Native American tribes and defenses against the French.
11. Iroquois: was a league of 6 tribes of indigenous people of North America, including the Cayuga, Mohawk, Seneca, Oneida, Tuscarora, and Onondaga. These tribes inhabited the Northeast portion of North America, and were at home in the forests.
12. Proclamation of 1763: was declared by George III following the British victory in the French and Indian War. It was intended to organize their territory in North America and promote peaceful relations between the Native Americans and colonists.
13. Salutary Neglect: was an unofficial British policy to avoid harsh enforcement of parliamentary decrees, meant to maintain a close relationship with the colonies.
14. Fort Necessity: was the site of a Battle in Pennsylvania. The battle, in 1754, was an early skirmish of the Seven Years War, and resulted in the surrender of British forces under George Washington, to the French.

*Answer the following questions to the best of your ability citing specific references from your reading assignment (Each question should be about one page in length)
1.  How did the treatment of Americans by British officers and military during the war contribute to simmering resentment against the “mother country”?
Even before the outbreak of the Seven Years War, there were tensions between Britain and its colonies. Both entities argued over laws, rights, regulations, and land. The war, also called the French and Indian War, was fought between Britain and France, who both struggled for supremacy in the Americas. The British made substantial gains over France, capturing French Canada and dominating the French in India, resulting in Britain being the ultimate European naval and colonial power. However, Britain had overextended itself to finance such a large military effort, and was forced to rely upon its colonies for support. Hence, the colonists in North America were taxed heavily to pay the war debts.
During the war, the British stationed thousands of troops in the colonies, who were originally welcoming; they were happy to support the war effort. However, the uneasy relationship between colonial militias and British military leaders contributed to the growing tensions. The French defeat and subsequent withdrawal from North America set the stage for conflict in the colonies. The absence of a large power in the area gave many colonists the mindset of independence. This, however, went against British regulations and demands, like the Proclamation of 1763, which prevented settlers from moving too far west.
These conditions created an atmosphere of resentment and distrust of the “mother country,” and contributed to the growing rift between Britain and its colonies.
2.  Should the French & Indian War be considered one of the major causes of the American Revolution?  Why or why not?
The French and Indian War was a large conflict between France and Great Britain for control in North America. France allied itself with the Native Americans living in the area, whereas Britain sided with the colonies. France lost the war, and with that lost its foothold in the New World. Britain became a great colonial power, but at the expense of huge military debts. This forced Britain to heavily tax the colonies to pay for the war effort. So, in a sense, the war should be considered a major factor of the outbreak of the American Revolution.
Originally, the British had made the mistake of allowing the colonies to govern themselves by not enforcing parliamentary decisions (salutary neglect). Following the war, Britain stationed troops in North America to maintain order, which the colonists did not appreciate. Then in an attempt to regulate territory won from the war, the Proclamation of 1763 limited the settlement of land that the colonists already considered theirs.
Also, the lack of a firm European power in the area allowed colonists to develop the mindset of independence and freedom when they were still very much part of the English Empire. The war made Britain take a greater interest in North America, and encouraged it to interfere more with the actions of the colonists. Thus, the French and Indian War (Seven Years War) should be considered one of the major causes of the American Revolution.