Chapter Eight

Persuading Individuals and Audiences

Chapter Overview

 

Being able to influence others to adopt your ideas is an essential skill for managers.  In this chapter we discuss the concept of persuasion: what it is, why it's important, and the process involved in persuading individuals and organizations.  We discuss the factors involved in effective persuasion, offer tips for successful persuasion, and review ethical and cautionary issues in persuasion.  We also include a section on making effective presentations.  The chapter begins with a case and discussion questions and concludes with a series of exercises designed to aid the readers in enhancing their skills in persuasion.

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, the student/reader will be able to:

• Influence others to adopt beliefs or behaviors different from current beliefs or behaviors?
• Get co-workers or team members to perform tasks even when I have no direct authority?
• Incorporate tactics and strategies to improve my influence and persuasion skills?
• Use elements of persuasion to give an effective presentation

Chapter Outline

 

What is Persuasion?

• Persuasion is a form of influence, a process of guiding people toward the adoption of a behavior, belief or attitude that prefers the persuader.
• Persuasion is an essential component of doing business. It does not mean telling someone what to do; it means presenting information and interacting with a person in such a way that you both fully understand the situation and come to an agreement about how to approach the situation.

Why is Persuasion Important?

• Effective managers must be able to persuade because:
• Employees question why things are done and the reasons behind methods.
• Companies are adapting a participative work style where employees at all levels are involved in formulating strategy, discussing business needs, making bottom-line decisions and implementing workplace changes.
• Today’s business world is moving towards using teams and “virtual” employees; persuasion is the way to get your—and others’—tasks accomplished. 
• The concept of persuasion can also be applied in personal situations, such as in discussions with roommates, relatives, significant others, etc.

 

Overview of Theories of Effective Persuasion

• In Leon Festinger’s cognitive dissonance theory, persuasion is also affected by the amount of dissonance, or tension that is present in the relationship prior to the persuasion.
• McGuire’s inoculation theory suggests that persuaders can be effective when they anticipate the objections of the persuadee and address those objections before they arise.
• Reardon’s ACE Model suggests that the most successful appeals are those judged to be:
• Appropriate – the right thing to do
• Consistent – the degree to which the action or belief proposed compares to that of similar others or to their own past behaviors or espoused beliefs
• Effective – the degree to which an action or idea leads to a desirable state or outcome

 

• The Persuasion Process consists of six steps:
• Understand others’ motivations and needs. Do this by actively listening, checking for understanding and reading people.
• Establish credibility, which stems from four personal characteristics:
• Positive impression or appearance – acquired initially through one’s appearance, gestures and behaviors, as well as through possession of credentials
• Expertise – acquired through developing an understanding or knowledge base about the subject matter or a track record of experience and prior success in the given area
• Trustworthiness – acquired over time through personal and professional relationships in which others perceive you as consistent, reliable and conscientious
• Composure – acquired by practicing, having a plan and knowing what you’re going to say and when
• Frame for common ground by developing a framework, or a plan for how to proceed, that involves describing their position in ways that identify common ground. Framing attains three interrelated objectives:
• Provides a perspective we would like the other party to consider
• Provides an open-minded way for alternatives and ideas to be compared and contrasted
• Creates a logical structure by which decisions can be made
• Engage in joint problem solving. By involving others you demonstrate your interest in their ideas and increase their buy-in to the solutions.
• Support preferred outcome with logic and reasoning by presenting facts, data, and compelling evidence.

• Reinforce with appeal to emotions and basic instincts. In addition to appealing to people’s feelings, fears, values, dreams, frustrations, ego, vanity or desires, consider one of three persuasion approaches that trigger automatic responses: reciprocity/obligation (“If you’ll do that for me, I’ll do this for you”), scarcity (“buy before our supply runs out”), consensus/social proof (“everyone uses this…”)

                                                                                            

A Word of Caution

Questions to determine if a speaker is either positively persuading or negatively manipulating:

• Who is really benefiting as a result of this act?
• Is the information being presented accurately?
• Does this interaction feel like a test of wills—a competitive game, or is it a healthy and positive debate—a two-way interchange?
• To defend yourself from wrongful persuasion:
• Be clear on your convictions and why you hold them.
• Think substance, not appearance.
• DO doubt the truth about what’s being said.  DO ask questions of speakers.
• Know the source.
• Consider the needs of others besides yourself.

 

Making Effective Presentations

Before the Presentation:

• Research your intended audience
• Determine appropriate dress
• Prepare your remarks
• Practice
• Relax

During the Presentation:

• Begin with an anecdote or quote
• Give your audience an organizing framework
• Present the core of your argument at the beginning
• Make your session interactive
• Use technology but sparingly
• Be interesting but not necessarily entertaining
• Summarize: “Tell them what you told them.”

After the Presentation:

• Evaluate
• Follow up

Teaching Notes

 

Motivating the discussion:

• Ask participants to discuss their past experiences in situations like these, paying particular attention to what made them successful.  "Have you ever persuaded your boss that you deserved a pay raise?  Have you ever tried to convince your parents to let you have a car at school?  How about talking your friends into seeing a movie you want to see, but that they're not as interested in?"  Have a large group discussion and scribe responses for all to see.  This should provide an effective lead in to how to persuade.
• Other questions that can be asked to initiate discussion are:
• When was the last time you persuaded someone to do something?  What steps did you take?  Did you succeed?  Why or why not?
• What's the difference between telling someone what to do and persuading someone to do something?
• In what type of organization is persuasion more likely to be valued and encouraged?
• What behaviors are likely to be seen in someone who is a good persuader?

Ideas for presenting material:

• So that you’re all working on the same page, use one of the exercises—for example 8-E (Back to the Future).  Have participants work in small groups to develop answers.  Discuss favorite approaches and speculate which would work best (and worst) and why.
• Show a clip from a presidential/political debate.  Ask participants to evaluate who was the more persuasive speaker.  "What about what they said (and didn’t say) earned them this distinction?  What did speakers do that caused students to find them less persuasive?" (See 8-B)
• Have the participants brainstorm lists of characteristics of effective presenters and presentations. 
•  

Discussion Questions

• People who sell security systems—to be used in our homes, cars, and even computer systems—often play on our fears (about safety, privacy, concern for our loved ones) to persuade us to buy their products.  Does this constitute persuasion as defined in the text?
• Persuasion involves presenting arguments and supporting evidence to compel others to adopt a desired behavior—buying the security products and services.  If a salesperson presents facts about burglaries, etc. and the customer finds this compelling and decides to purchase the system, this act constitutes one of persuasion. 

• However, if a salesperson uses force (“I’m not leaving until you agree to buy this”) or manipulation (deceiving a customer by signing them up for a free one month trial but not telling them that there are other costs or that if they don’t cancel by the end of the period, they will be billed for any time thereafter), this would not be considered persuasion.  Instead, this would be called coercion or manipulation.  Persuasion “does not rob people of their ability to choose.”

 

We suggest that in an era of empowerment, team-based structures, and reduced layers of management, one’s ability to persuade has become increasingly important.  Why is this so?

• Even when an employee has supervisory authority over another, it is unlikely that orders—especially those that seem illogical or unnecessary—will be blindly followed without questions or discussion.
• In the current, rapidly changing business environment, getting and using the opinions of all employees is important for at least two reasons.  The best ideas come when employees are persuaded that they and their inputs matter. First, those who are closer to the customers and products probably have better ideas to offer for improvement than the manager sitting on the tenth floor of the corporate headquarters building.  Second, moving in any direction requires support of employees.  If they’re involved in the process, they are likely to support the change.
• By involving them and soliciting their input on key decisions, they are likely to support the outcome.  In both these situations, and in the absence of position-based authority, persuasive ability is critical.  Teammates cooperate with you because they want to, not because they have to. 

If you were the Human Resources manager and wanted to convince the CEO to implement a flextime policy (e.g., can work any 8 hours between 6am and 6pm) to assist employees with children (and others) to care for, what might you say/do, taking into account Conger’s four suggestions?  

• “You’ve hired me because of my expertise in HR.  Based on my research, and our years working together, I have a plan that will meet your goals as well as those of the employees.” This scenario uses expertise, trustworthiness, and framing for common ground, possibly composure—depending on how presented.
• “I know you value the bottom line.  I also know that our turnover rate is 21% higher than the industry, and that our absenteeism rate is increasing.  Flextime doesn’t cost anything.  In fact, research suggests flextime might result in less absenteeism since it put employees in charge of their schedules given their individual constraints.  As long as we can guarantee coverage across the agreed upon hours, I am confident that we’ll increase productivity while decreasing absenteeism and turnover.  You wouldn’t want to lose more valuable employees, would you?  It’s difficult and expensive to find replacements in this job market.” This approach uses logic and reasoning, as well as emotional connection.

 

Imagine you are the operations manager of a mid-sized firm.  In an effort to cut costs, the CEO is suggesting that it might be more cost-effective to move all manufacturing overseas.  Using inoculation theory, develop an approach to address this suggestion.

• “I know that your goal is to reduce costs.  However, in addition to increased shipping costs, we are likely to bear additional costs when, due to quality problems, we have to accept more returns and a potential loss of customers.  We may also have difficulty keeping to agreed upon shipping dates once the manufacturing operation is out of sight, out of mind.”
•  

Making presentations is a skill that is expected of all managers in organizations today.  Whether you'll be presenting an organization's quarterly earnings to a Board, arguing on behalf of a new product development cycle, or convincing senior management to invest more in training and development programs for employees, professional presentation skills are a must.  Yet we know that making presentations is something that very few people actually enjoy doing.  What advice would you recommend that someone take if they get extremely nervous before presentations and would prefer to avoid making presentations?

• First it might be wise to assess if there is a medical reason why you fear giving presentations.  Sometimes one's fears can cause one's blood pressure or heart rate to elevate.  Check with a medical doctor first to ensure there's not a medical reason behind fear of speaking. If there is, drug therapy and counseling might be recommended.
• If it is determined that the fear is a normal fear of speaking in public, implement some of the suggestions in the chapter, e.g. practice, practice, practice.  The more confident you are in your content, the better you can focus on the audience during your presentation.
• Practice relaxation techniques ahead of and during the presentation.
• Remember that practice makes perfect!  The more experience you gain in making presentations, the less nervous you'll be during presentations.

 

Notes on Selected Exercises

Exercise 8–A
CREATING CONSONANCE OUT OF DISSONANCE

Purpose: To allow participants practice in applying cognitive dissonance theory to a work situation.

Time: 15 min.

Activity Instructions:  Students should answer the questions individually or in small groups.  Instructor may invite examples to be shared with the class.

Exercise 8-B

DEBATE PERSUASIONS

 

Purpose: To allow participants practice in identifying and understanding persuasive techniques.

Time: 30 min.

Resources/Set-up: If you know of an upcoming televised debate, suggest that students watch it at home individually or in groups. Alternatively, obtain a tape of a recent political debate and show it in class.

Activity Instructions: Watch the debate. Have students answer the questions, and discuss their findings together in class.

Exercise 8–C

PERSUASIVE PSA

Purpose: To allow participants to practice devising persuasive arguments.

Time: 30 min.

Resources/Set-up: Triads or small groups; copy of scenarios (in chapter)

Activity Instructions:

• Place participants in triads or small groups.
• Participants are to read the scenario and follow the instructions in the chapter.

Discussion/Debrief: See questions in text; facilitate discussion with these, plus:

• You could provide some reward to the winning team.
• Ask participants to identify the aspects of their arguments that support the theories and tips presented in the chapter.

Exercise 8–D
“I DESERVE A RAISE” ROLE PLAY

Purpose:  To allow participants to role-play presenting persuasive arguments

Time: 30-40 min.

Resources/Set-up: Copy of the role-play and questions (in chapter)

Activity Instructions:

• Place participants in triads or small groups.  Two participants play the roles of employee and boss, and the third or other members serve as observers. 
• The observers should use the exercise questions to help them evaluate the role-play.
• Participants are to read the scenario in the chapter.
• In round one, person A is the Employee, B is the Boss, and C is the Observer. They should rotate roles so that in round two, person A is the Boss, B the Observer and C the Employee, and so on.  Each round should last about ten minutes and should include first the persuasion role-play and then a round of feedback in which the Observer(s) gives feedback to the Employee about their persuasion skills.  One of the observers can serve as timekeeper.

Variations:  An alternative approach would be to select two students to role play the conversation between the employee and supervisor in front of the class.  This can be done two or three times, using new players each time, with a class discussion after each attempt.  Each successive attempt should be an improvement on the former.

Or ask if participants can identify the aspects of their arguments which support the theories and tips presented in the chapter, using this role-play to practice applying a specific theory or technique, such as inoculation or ACE.

Discussion/Debrief: See questions in text; facilitate discussion with these, plus:

• What if, per question #4, the boss proposes a counteroffer (as opposed to objection) of paying for graduate school instead of a raise?

Exercise 8–E
BACK TO THE FUTURE

Purpose: To allow participants practice in applying the six step approach to persuading others to change their behavior.

Time: 30 min.

Resources/Set-up: Copy of the scenario and worksheet (see chapter)

Activity Instructions: This activity can be used as a homework assignment or as an in-class activity for small groups.

• Participants are to read the case in the chapter and develop a persuasive script using each of the six steps of persuasion.

 

Discussion/Debrief: Discuss and compare answers in small groups using the following questions:

• Which of these steps were easier to address? Which were harder?  Why?
• If you were the one of the parents, what objections might you raise?  What impact might that have in this scenario?

• How can you combine other persuasion techniques to be successful in motivating this behavior change on the part of the print shop owners?
• Consider applying this approach to similar scenarios, such as convincing a friend to stop smoking, start exercising or dump the current boyfriend/girlfriend who is cheating on him/her.

Exercise 8-F
APPLYING THE SIX PERSUASION STEPS TO YOUR OWN SITUATION

Purpose: To allow participants practice in applying the six step approach to persuading others to change their behavior in a situation of their choosing.

Time: 30 min.

Resources/Set-up: Copy of the scenario and worksheet (see chapter)

Activity Instructions: This activity can be used as a homework assignment or as an in-class assignment.

Exercise 8–G
UNDERSTANDING THE POWER OF LEVERAGING BASIC INSTINCTS

Purpose: To allow participants practice in evaluating the use and effectiveness of Cialdini’s basic instincts to persuade others in the workplace or world. 
Time: 30 min.

Resources/Set-up: Copy of the worksheet (see chapter)

Activity Instructions: This activity can be used as a homework assignment or as an in-class activity for small groups.

Exercise 8–H
APPLYING THE ACE MODEL

Purpose: To allow participants to practice creating persuasive arguments using the ACE MODEL

Time: 20-30 min.

Resources/Set-up: Copy of the scenarios and questions (in chapter)

Activity Instructions: This activity can be used as a homework assignment and then followed with a classroom discussion on the application of the various persuasive techniques.  You may assign both scenarios or use the one most appropriate for your audience.

 

Participants are to read the scenario/s in the chapter and develop a script based on the areas of appropriateness, consistency, and effectiveness.

Variation: These scenarios could be used for practice with all the persuasion tactics and theories.

Discussion/Debrief: Discuss in small groups.

• Which of these components of the ACE model were easier to address? Which were harder?  Why?
• Which of the components seemed most persuasive by themselves or in combination with other components?  Why?
• What objections might be raised?  How would you overcome them using ACE or other methods?
• How can you combine other persuasion techniques to be successful in persuading the roommate, the insurance firm owner?

Exercise 8–I
REFLECTION/ACTION PLAN

This can be done by the participants as an assignment or in pairs or small groups or a class discussion can be facilitated by the Instructor.

Additional Resources

 

Deborah C. Andrew, Technical Communication in the Global Community, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1998.

"The Art of Communicating Effectively,"
http://www.presentingsolutions.com/effectivepresentations.html

Ralph Barney and Jay Black, "Ethics and professional persuasive communications," Public Relations Review, Fall 1994 v20 n3 p233(16).

Robert B. Cialdini, Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion, Quill, Sept. 1993.

Robert B. Cialdini, Influence: Science and Practice, Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2001.

Jay A. Conger, “The Necessary Art of Persuasion,” Harvard Business Review, May-June 1998, p.84.

Stephen R. Covey, “30 Methods of Influence,” Executive Excellence, April 1991.

Leon Festinger, "Cognitive Dissonance Theory," from A First Look at Communication Theory, Em Griffin, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1997.

Winston Fletcher, "Speak out and remove all doubt," Management Today, Oct 1998 p31(1)

Sue Gaulke, 101 Ways to Captivate a Business Audience, Amacom, Nov. 1996.

Fritz Heider, "Attribution Theory," in A First look at Communication Theory, Em Griffin, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994.

Roy Johnson and John Eaton, Influencing People, New York: Dorling Kindersley Limited, 2002.

John W, Keltner, The Management of Struggle, Hampton Press, Inc., 1995.

"Leading with Persuasion (video)," 20 minutes, CRM Learning, Carlsbad, CA, 1-800-421-0833, www.crmlearning.com.

Harry A. Mills, Artful Persuasion: How to Command Attention, Change Minds, and Influence People, Amacom, Feb. 2000.

G. Morrissey, T. Sechrest and W. Werman, Loud and Clear: How to Prepare and Deliver Effective Business and Technical Presentations, Addison-Wesley, 1997.

Kathleen K. Reardon, Persuasion in Practice, Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1991.

Robert Sanders, Cognitive Foundations of Calculated Speech: Controlling Understandings in Conversation and Persuasion, SUNY (State University of New York) Press, 1987.

"Side Tips and Tricks — How to Design Presentation Graphics That Sell," http://www.opus1000.com/opsweb4.htm

"Speaking Effectively…to One or One Thousand (video)," 24 minutes, CRM Learning, Carlsbad, CA, 1-800-421-0833, www.crmlearning.com.

Lyle Sussman, “How to frame a message: the art of persuasion and negotiation,” Business Horizons, July-August 1999, v42 i4 p2.