Chapter 3: Society and Culture in Provincial America

I. The Colonial Population
- nonnative population grew due to continued immigration & natural increase
- by 17th century, European & African immigrants dominated Atlantic Coast
- early English population very unaristocratic àdominant element was laborers

• Indentured Servitude

-voluntarily bound to masters; in return, they received passage, food, shelter & land
-headright system: masters received land grants for every servant they imported
-some indentures became farmers, trades people or artisans
-other males found themselves without land, employment, family or prospects
-large floating population of single men threatened social unrest
-beginning in 1670s flow of immigrants declined due to a decrease in birth rate and increased English prosperity
-after 1700, better opportunities in mid-Atlantic colonies > PA and NY

• Birth and Death

-non-Indian population expanded to over ¼ million
-after the 1650s, natural increase became most important source of population
-exceptional longevity > men lived to 71, while women lived to 70
-mortality rates for whites in Chesapeake region were higher than anywhere else
-white men lived to just over 40 and one in four children died in infancy
-by late 17th century, ratio of males to females in colonies was more balanced

• Medicine in the Colonies

-many deaths attributed to infections during childbirth or surgery (unsanitary)
-midwives assisted in childbirth & dispensed medical advice; urged patients to use herbs or natural remedies
-prevailing assumptions of the time mainly derived from the theory of “humoralism” by Roman physician Galen
-principal medical techniques were purging, expulsion, and bleeding
-midwives preferred homeopathic treatments
-birth of Enlightenment led to acceptance of scientific method

• Women and Families in the Chesapeake

-traditional male-centered family structure of England became difficult to maintain
-five out of eight children died in infancy
-many widowed wives owned land after husbands died > gained economic power
-population and life expectancy increased, indentured servitude declined, natural reproduction became main source of increase in white population

• Women and Families in New England

-in NE, family structure more stable than in Chesapeake, hence more traditional
-longer life expectancy in the North in contrast to the South
-women lived longer, hence they were less often cast in roles independent of their husbands
-for New Englanders, family and status of women defined by religious belief
-Anne Hutchinson is an example of both the possibilities and limits of female spiritual power
-Puritanism placed high value on family and reinforced the idea of male authority and assumption of female inferiority
-women were important to agricultural economy by engaging in farming tasks

• The Beginnings of Slavery in British America

-demand for slaves grew rapidly due to tobacco cultivation
-Portuguese dominated in 16th century > later joined by Dutch and French navigators
-Middle Passage: transfer of African slaves on terrifying journey to America
-turning point in African Americans population increased after Royal African Company’s monopoly was broken
-by early 18th century, a rigid distinction between blacks and whites was established
-slave codes were established to limit rights of blacks in law to ensure absolute authority to white masters

• Changing Sources of European Immigration

-earliest immigrants were the French Calvinists, or Huguenots
-German Protestants suffered similarly from religious policies of their rulers
-all Germans, Catholics as well as Protestants suffered from the devastating wars with King Louis XIV
- Quaker colony in Pennsylvania became most common destination for Germans
-in NJ and Pennsylvania, Presbyterianism was an important religion in the colonies

II. The Colonial Economies
-substantial trade developed with native population of North America with French settlers in the north and Spanish colonists in the south and west
-farming dominated all areas of Euro and African settlement in 17th & 18th centuries

• The Southern Economy

-tobacco early established itself as basis of the economy
-staple crop of the economies of SC and Georgia was rice
-SC and Georgia were more dependent on African slaves because they were much better at it than whites and had a greater resistance to malaria
-Eliza Lucas discovered an Indian plant (indigo) that could be grown on the high ground of SC
-because of cash crops, southern colonies developed less of a commercial or industrial economy
-trading in tobacco & rice handled by merchants in London & later in northern colonies

• Northern Economic and Technological Life

-NE agriculture was harder to farm because of cold weather and hard rocky soil
-NY, PA, and CT River valley were suppliers of wheat to NE and parts of the South
-first effort to establish metals industry was ironworks in Saugus, MA after iron ore was discovered
-metal works became important part of colonial economy
-Iron Act of 1750 restricted metal processing in colonies
-biggest obstacle to industrialization in America was inadequate labor supply, small domestic market, inadequate transportation facilities and energy supplies
-fur trade was in decline; lumbering, mining, and fishing took its place
-most distinctive feature of northern economy was thriving commercial class

• The Extent and Limits of Technology

-half the farmers in the colonies did not even own a plow
-many households had few, if any, pots for cooking, guns or rifles and candles because they were unable to afford candle molds or tallow (wax)
-the most commonly owned tool on farms was the axe
-few colonists were self-sufficient in late 17th and early 18th centuries
-few colonial families owned spinning wheels or looms, so most purchased their yarn or clothing from merchants

• The Rise of Colonial Commerce

-shortage of currency > no commonly accepted medium of exchange
-second obstacle was imposing order on their trade
-experimented with different forms of paper currency like tobacco certificates
-vessels stayed at sea for years journeying from one market to another to earn a profit
-Triangular Trade in rum, slaves & sugar was a maze of highly diverse trade routes:  
-between the northern and southern colonies, America and England, America
and Africa, and the West Indies and Europe
-by mid-18th century, a group of entrepreneurs began to constitute a distinct merchant class concentrated in port cities in the North (Boston, NY & Philadelphia)
-commercial sector remained open to newcomers because it was expanding rapidly

• The Rise of Consumerism

-result was a growing preoccupation with consumption of material goods and association of possessions with social status
-consumerism was increasing division of American societies by class
-growth of consumerism was a product of early stages of industrial revolution
-merchants and traders began advertising their goods in journals and newspapers
-items that became commonplace household items included tea, linens, glassware, cutlery, crockery, and furniture
-Americans strove to develop themselves as witty and educated conversationalists
-18th century cities had public squares, parks and boulevards to create public stages for social display
III. Patterns of Society
-aristocracies emerged that relied less on land ownership and more on a work force
-there were opportunities in America for social mobility

• The Plantation

-Charles Carroll of Carrollton, wealthiest man in the colonies, had 40,000 acres and 285 slaves
-on the whole, 17th century colonial plantations were relatively small estates
-plantations were far from cities, so they often became self-contained communities
-there were frequent sexual liaisons between husbands or sons and black women in the slave communities
-Southern society was highly stratified
-small farmers formed majority of the South, but planters dominated their economy

• Plantation Slavery

-Africans developed a strong family structure as a result of increased life expectancy, gradual equalization of sex ratio, and growth of the population
-any family member could be sold at any time, so they created “surrogate” families
-African workers developed languages of their own and created a religion blending Christianity with African folklore
-most important slave rebellion during the colonial period was the Stono Rebellion
-on larger plantations, slaves learned blacksmithing, carpentry, shoemaking, spinning, weaving, sewing, and midwifery

• The Puritan Community

-Puritan settlements drew up a “covenant” among its members, binding all residents in a religious and social commitment
-residents held a yearly “town meeting” to decide important questions and to choose a group of “selectmen” who governed
-in NE, a father divided up his land among all his sons as opposed to the English system of primogeniture
-as towns grew, many people moved out of the town center nearer their lands, but farther from the church
-fathers needed their sons, as well as their wives and daughters, as a source of labor

• Witchcraft Phenomenon

-supposed witchcraft in NE caused widespread hysteria in the 1680s and 1690s
-most famous outbreak was in Salem, Massachusetts
-19 residents were put to death before trials ended in 1692
-research reveals that most of the accused were middle-aged women, often widowed, with few or no children in low social position
-Puritan society had little tolerance for “independent” women
-reflected the highly religious character of these societies

• Cities

-two largest ports in the 1770s were Philadelphia and New York, followed by Boston, Charles Town and Newport
-colonial cities served as trading centers for farmers and marts of international trade
-social distinctions were most real and visible in urban areas
-cities became locations for most advanced schools & sophisticated cultural activities
-in addition, there were urban social problems: crime, vice, pollution and epidemics
-cities became places where new ideas could circulate and be discussed
-revolutionary crisis in 1760’s and 1770’s was first visible in taverns & coffeehouses

IV. Awakenings and Enlightenments
-two forces were competing in American intellectual life in18th century
-one was traditional outlook with emphasis on personal God
-other stressed importance of science & human reason
-Enlightenment suggested that people had control over their own lives & society

• The Pattern of Religions

-settlers in America brought with them so many different religious practices that it proved difficult to impose a single religious code on any large area
-Church of England was established in VA, MD, NY, the Carolinas and Georgia
-New Englanders viewed Catholics as commercial and military rivals and dangerous agents of Rome
-Jews established their largest community in NY City
-rise of commercial prosperity created secular outlook in urban areas
-“Jeremiads” are sermons of despair deploring the signs of waning piety

• The Great Awakening

-by the early 18th century, similar concerns about declining piety and growing secularism were emerging in other regions and among members of other faith
-the Great Awakening brought religious fervor to the colonies
-appealed to women and younger sons of the third and fourth generations of settlers
-powerful evangelists were John and Charles Wesley (Methodism), George Whitefield
-most outstanding was Jonathan Edwards who preached traditional Puritan ideas
-revivalists were associated with the “New Light” and traditionalists were associated with the “Old Light”

• The Enlightenment

-scientists and other thinkers discovered natural laws that they believed regulated the workings of nature
-scientists argued that humans had a moral sense between right and wrong and didn’t always need to turn to God for guidance for decision making
-encouraged new emphasis on education and an interest in politics and government
-ideas borrowed from abroad form Francis Bacon and John Locke
-later Americans as Ben Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine, and James Madison made vital contributions to Enlightenment traditions

• Education

-in Massachusetts, a 1647 law required every town to support a public school
-by the Revolution, more than half of white men could read and write
-in their early years colonial girls often received the same home-based education as boys and their literacy rate was higher than that of their European counterparts
-slaves had virtually no access to education
-most Indian tribes educated their children in their own way
-Harvard, the first American college, was est. in 1636 as training center for ministers
-later William and Mary (VA), Yale (CT), and Princeton (NJ) were founded
-despite the religious basis of colleges, the curricula included logic, ethics, physics, geometry, astronomy, rhetoric, Latin, Hebrew, and Greek
-Penn was a completely secular institution and became first medical school

• The Spread of Science

-most early colleges introduced advanced scientific theories of Europe, including Copernican astronomy and Newtonian physics
-leading merchants, planters, and theologians became members of the Royal Society of London, the leading English scientific organization
-Benjamin Franklin won international fame with lightning and electricity
-Cotton Mather introduced smallpox inoculation, or the practice of deliberately infecting people with mild cases of smallpox to immunize against the deadly disease
-by the mid-18th century, inoculation was a common medical procedure in America

• Concepts of Law and Politics

-changes in the law resulted in part from the scarcity of English-trained lawyers
-American legal system adopted many of its elements from the English system, like trial by jury
-John Peter Zenger won an important case that removed restrictions on freedom of the press
-in most colonies, local communities ran their own affairs with minimal interference from higher authorities
-in 1763, the English government began tightening its control over American colonies àSALUTARY NEGLECT!!!

V. Conclusion
-the North was dominated by small farms, growing towns and cities, a thriving commercial class, and an urban culture
-the South was dominated by plantations, relied on African workers, and had little other commerce than crops
-most white Americans accepted racial inequality
-most white colonists believed in basic principles of law and politics