TABOOS IN ANCIENT EGYPT
Samar Mostafa Kamal PhD
Lecturer, Department of Tourist Guidance-Faculty of Tourism and Hotels-
Minia University, Minia, Egypt

Abstract

Cultural Heritage can be one of the most important identity basics that can lead to the development of new types of tourism, which can re-launch the inland areas, through the re-discovery of their authenticity and identity. This will increase the economic and social benefits for the country and certain localities.
Tourists today are seeking for adventure, being a part of the daily life activities and aware of the cultural heritage of the places they visit, gathering between leisure and knowledge, while respecting the social and cultural equality of the population.

Today's tourists are anxious to know more about our cultural heritage, ancient Egyptian civilization and people who lived at this period, discovering their traditions, attitudes and social life. Egyptology should not be just a study of tombs, temples and pyramids, but a study of the people and civilization that achieved all these imposing constructions.

The Mediterranean area is experiencing this change and new interests, through the Integrated Relational Tourism (IRT), seeking for overcoming the traditional concept of tourist demand and decrease the merciless economic competition. This will need a network of activities and services to realize a satisfactory relationship with the local inhabitants and the areas visited

Guides will have an effective role in this network to realize (IRT), being an actual contact between their own cultural heritage and tourists.

This paper will discuss one of the cultural heritage topics of ancient Egyptian civilization, taboos in Ancient Egypt, which affected all aspects of life in ancient Egypt.

Taboo is a strong social prohibition or ban, relating to any area of human activity or social custom declared as sacred and forbidden. Breaking of taboo is usually considered objectionable by society. No taboo is known to be universal, but some occur in the majority of societies. Taboos may reveal the historical and cultural heritage of societies and civilizations when other records are not available.

Taboos were in effect the means by which the social and metaphysical framework was preserved and reinforced. What was the origin of the word taboo. Did the ancient Egyptians have their own taboos. What are the classifications of these taboos. This paper will try to answer and discuss all these issues.

The origin of the term taboo seems to have been derived from the ancient Egyptian language; the word used by the ancient Egyptians to refer to the concept of taboo was"bwt". Pierre Montet's analysis of cult-topographical lists of the Late Period (747-332 BC), reached the conclusion that the proper rendering of the word bwt was taboo. The proposed translation seems to have met with general acceptance, especially from Egyptologists.

The ancient Egyptians believed that taboos were instilled by gods in particular objects, actions, buildings and even individuals. Only the creator-god himself, or the king could alter these taboos.

Taboos could affect spiritual and physical entities of people, as it was ranging from bodily orifices, copulation to national borders. Other forms of taboos were concerned with the avoidance of such activities, as the consumption of certain food stuffs, including pigs, kinds of fish and honey. Walking upside down and the epagomenal days at the end of each year were also taboos.

Among the very accepted taboos in ancient Egypt, the access to such ceremonial and ritualistic buildings, as tombs, temples and palaces, in the sense that individuals were prohibited unless they adhered to certain rules of purity, being circumcised and abstinence from sexual activity.

So, we can conclude that taboo in ancient Egypt was a combination of religious, ritual prohibition and social avoidances that affected all their aspects of life.

Keywords: Taboos, fish, circumcision, pigs, menstruation.

INTRODUCTION

Taboo is a strong prohibition, relating to any human activity or social custom declared as sacred or forbidden. A taboo might be general or particular, permanent or temporary, physical or spiritual. Breaking a taboo is usually considered objectionable by society. The penalty for the violation of a taboo is either religious or civil. The idea of a universal taboo is questionable, as no taboo is known to be universal, but some occur in the majority of societies. Taboos may reveal the historical and cultural heritage of societies and civilizations when other records are not available.

Taboo is thought to be one of the few Polynesian words that incorporated into European Language and thought. It was a word brought back and introduced into the English language by Captain James Cook in 1777( Frandsen 2001, 345).

The study of taboos by anthropologists has led to deeper understanding of the development of different societies. "Frazer" has pointed out that a taboo is only one of a number of systems, settled by kings or priests to build up the complex fabric of society (Frazer 1911, 8). "Mary Douglas" presented her views of the concepts of pollution and taboo, saying that “Taboos are means of protecting people and societies from anomalies and marginal states and it is dangerous to be outside the boundaries that create and uphold moral and social order” (Douglas 1966, 33).

Taboos are used as a means of establishing and maintaining social strata. The political power of a person is delimited by the taboos he could impose (Steiner 1956, 39; Frandsen 2001, 345).

Taboos in Egypt were in effect the means by which the social and metaphysical framework was preserved and reinforced. What was the origin of the word taboo? Did the Egyptians have their own taboos? Who instilled these taboos? What are the classifications of these taboos, and why they were considered so? This paper will try to answer and discuss all these issues.

THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH

This paper aimed to be an analytic study of taboos in ancient Egypt, which affected all aspects of the Egyptians' life. This contribution discussed also the relevant terminology and sources of taboos in Egypt, the origin of the word taboo, the different classifications of taboos and the real reasons of regarding these taboos in ancient Egypt.

DISCUSSION

The origin of the term taboo seems to have been derived from the Egyptian language; the word used to refer to the concept of taboo was" bwt",

Pierre Montet's analysis of cult-topographical lists of the Late period, suggested that the proper rendering of the word "bwt" was taboo. Although the word taboo is still used in a loose sense, the proposed translation seems to have met with general acceptance (Montet 1950, 85; Frandsen 1986, 135).

Terminology

The word bwt was commonly translated as taboo in different texts, almost during all periods of ancient Egypt. Unfortunately the term was sometimes badly translated.
The word "bwt" is singular and the plural is "bwtyw" or "bwyw". The most common determinative of the word "bwt" is the fish, as it was generally referring to dirt, impurity, bad things and evil actions in Egyptian language and thoughts. The word "bwt" had occasionally two determinatives, the fish or the bird of wretch things or behaviors (Montet 1950, 86-88).

The word "bwt" was first appeared in the mastaba of the vizier Ankhmahore at Saqqara (6th Dynasty). The term was referring to abomination, having the same kind of fish as a determinative (Montet 1950, 89; Shaw And Nicholson 1997, 281).

The Concept of Taboo

Taboos were in effect the means by which the social, physical and spiritual framework was preserved and reinforced. In Egypt, the world was created according to and by means of "maat", which was an Egyptian term, means "world order", "truth", "justice" and "cosmic balance". Hence "maat" was a complex and interdependent sense of ethics that maintained the universal order in Egypt (Okinga 2001, 484).

To live in accordance with maat, was also fundamental to everlasting existence (Baines, 1990, 5). The goal of every Egyptian was to find a place within that ordered universe, both in life and the next (Kadish 1979, 203-205).

Bwt was regarded to be the opposite of maat. Violating a "bwt" would threaten the destiny of an individual. The Instructions of Ptahhotep (6th Dynasty) vowed:" There is a punishment for him who passes over its maat's laws." The Instructions of Merikare (10th Dynasty) stated: "Do maat so that you may endure upon earth." (Frandsen 2001, 346). "Kadish" mentioned that "Evil-doers are as dangerous as one can imagine." (Kadish 1979, 206).

The Egyptians believed that taboos were instilled by the creator god or the king (represented the god on earth), to reestablish the original and primeval order of the world, the so-called "maat" (Shaw And Nicholson 1997, 281).

Desecrate a taboo became harmful for the gods, dead and even the living. The deceased was careful to declare in his funerary inscriptions that he has had no contact with "bwt".The Egyptian had to seize every opportunity to deny willingness to adhere to the forces of disorder; that is accomplished by refusing to behave in a disordered fashion (Douglas 1966, 35).

The "negative confession"; which was a list of sins that had not been committed by the deceased, and was intended to be recited before the gods in the "hall of judgment" to ensure a successful outcome of the deceased, recorded in the tenth sentence of its first confession (Strauhal 1992, 28).

"I did not do any taboos instilled by the gods"

"I am a purified person" (Montet 1950, 114).

Taboos could affect physical entities ranging from bodily orifices to national borders, so the concept of bwt gave rise to numerous prohibitions. One type of a taboo affected access to such sacred and ritualistic structures as tombs, temples and palaces. This adhered to certain rules of purity, such as the abstinence from sexual activities and avoidance of particular types of food as pigs, fish or honey, depending mainly on the local cosmology. In fact, each province had its local god, emblem and specific taboos (Frandsen 1985, 151).

Foodstuff Taboos

(A) Pigs

Pigs were herded, raised and occasionally eaten, throughout Egypt from the Predynastic period and onwards, although they thought to be a taboo meat. The pig was the sacred animal of god Set, and therefore it was considered a taboo since Set was an "evil-god", the murderer of god Osiris, and the adversary of god Horus (Parsons 2005, 1). The domestic pig was already known as early as the Predynastic era; small clay models have been found in the graves of that period at Abydos and elsewhere in Egypt (Newberry 1928, 211).

There is some divided speculation concerning the pigs as a taboo diet in Egypt. "Salima Ikram"said that; "The Near Eastern and Egyptian pork may actually stem from considerations of health, rather than sentiment. Animals can become taboo if they have offensive habits or smells and transmit diseases (Ikram 2001, 47).

Herodotus; the Greek historian was the first one who mentioned the pig taboo in Egypt. According to him, the main reason for pig taboo was its impurity, uncleanness and association with god Set. He had reported that; "The Egyptians never touched pigs or ate them, since they were identified with Set. An Egyptian, who accidently touched a pig, would have to plunge into the Nile for purification." He then added; "Swineherds were so shunned that, they had to live apart." (Ikram 2001, 48). Besides, those who kept pigs formed some kind of underclass, who could only marry the daughters of other swineherds (Shaw And Nicholson 1997, 33).

The paucity of pigs in the artistic records of the upper classes during both Old and Middle Kingdoms, and the lacking of swine in the extensive offering lists, religious and funerary texts, have served the idea that pigs were a taboo diet. This idea was supported by the repeated identification of pigs with the evil-god Set in the "Contending of Horus and Set", "Coffin Texts" and in chapter 112 and 125 of "Book of the Dead" (Ikram 2001, 47).

In the New Kingdom, pigs in Egyptian husbandry expanded considerably. Pig bones were discovered at the workmen's village at Deir el-Medina and at Tell el Amarna as "Barry Kemp" reported in the "Amarna Reports I" (Frandsen 1985, 155 ). Wealthy citizens began to maintain large numbers of pigs on their estates. The tombs of several notables in the 18th Dynasty illustrated swine alongside other farmyard animals (Houlihan 2001, 47).

Ramses III's temple at Medinet Habu, has recorded pigs as offerings for a feast of god Nefertum. Amenhotep III gave the temple of god Ptah at Memphis, about 1000 pigs as offerings. The recorded texts in the temple of Seti I at Abydos, indicated that the temple had large herds of swine on its domain (Ikram 2001, 48).

(B) Fish

Fish enjoyed a very special position in Egypt; sometimes sacred, sometimes scorned, eaten by some, prohibited to others. Skeletal remains, the literary records and artistic representations from tombs and temples are the main sources employed to trace the development of fish use and diet in Egypt. Fish appeared continuously in the artistic and literary records, in offerings, taxes and payments. The earliest evidence of a strong reliance on fish dated back to the Predynastic period (Brewer 2001, 532).

The Nile, the marshy Delta, the Red Sea and the Mediterranean coast are all rich in fish, so fish served as a substitute for the more costly meat for the poor people. Records excavated at Deir el-Medina, stated that fishermen were employed to provide some of the rations for the royal tomb-workers, and to provide food for lesser officials. Fish bones were discovered in great numbers around the workers tombs, who were participating in building the pyramids at Giza (Shaw And Nicholson 1997, 100).

The association of fish with certain gods and goddesses, and in mythology, was a real fact. To what extent the religious view of fish influenced their use remains complicated, but later temples texts indicated that, fish was a taboo diet. The existence of local prohibitions provided lists of taboos in different provinces in Egypt; these lists recorded six kinds of fish taboos (Danneskiold 1988, 18).

At Esna, the Nile perch (Lates), was a taboo diet as it was identified with goddess Neith, who at one point turned herself into a Nile perch to navigate to the primeval ocean Nun. At Mendes, the modern Tell el-Rubaa, (Lepidotus fish) was a taboo diet as it was associated with goddess Hat-Mehit; "the chief of fishes", that was worshipped in the form of a fish or, a woman wearing a fish emblem (Shaw And Nicholson 1997, 100).

At Oxyrynchus, or the modern El-Bahnasa, (Mormyrus fish) was a taboo food, as it was thought that this fish came forth from the wounds of god Osiris (Montet 1950, 95).

The Tilapi; or (Chromis Fish), was a taboo diet, since it acted the role of a pilot for the boat of the sun-god Re, warning the approach of the snake "Apophis" during the voyage through the netherworld (Shaw And Nicholson 1997, 100).

The fish taboo might actually derive from the Egyptian belief, that the fish had consumed the penis of god Osiris. The Greek writer Plutarch said that; "When the body of god Osiris was cut into pieces by god Set, his phallus was eaten by three species of Nile fish; Lepidotus, Mormyrus and the Phagrus (Danneskiold 1988, 20).

Herodotus had reported that fish was a taboo food for priests in Egypt, while Diodorus, extended this ban to every one. However, the king, the priests and the blessed dead, were not allowed to eat fish, since it was occasionally identified with the evil-god Set, owing to its role in the myth of Osiris (Montet 1950, 94). The Victory Stela of the Kushite ruler, "Piy", mentioned that fish- eaters were prohibited to enter the royal palace, because of their uncleanness and impurity (Ikram 2001, 391).

Taboos actions in Ancient Egypt

(A) Walking upside down
Walking upside down was among the taboo actions in Egypt. It was mentioned in spell 173 of Coffin Texts (CT III, 47-59); "I will not go upside down for you." Realizing the main explanation for this taboo is still a matter of confusion. "Montet" mentioned that this kind of taboo may have been related to the crime of god Set in persuading god Osiris to stretch in his sarcophagus in such abnormal position (Montet 1950, 106).

"Frandsen" stated that; walking upside down was constantly related to the taboo of fasces (Frandsen 1985, 151). While "Zandee" explained this association by saying that those who walk upside down in the netherworld became impure in the presence of the gods, and their digestive processes would be in danger of being reversed (Zandee 1960, 73).

"Kadish" concluded that the Egyptians feared to face eternity upside down lest; they might loose their heads or have been swallowed up by the beast that waited alongside the scales of justice in the "Hall of Judgment" (Kadish 1979, 203).

(B) Eating Excrement and Drinking Urine

Eating excrement and drinking urine were among the taboos in Egypt. The deceased was very cautious to ensure his purity before the gods in the hereafter, so he had to deny violating any kind of taboos. The "Coffin Texts" served as a focal point that contained many references of eating excrement and drinking urine taboos Spell 173 of "Coffin Texts", (CT III, 47-59), began with the heading: "So as not to eat excrement and not to drink urine in the necropolis." (Kadish 1979, 205).

(C) Additional Taboo Actions and Behaviors

- The Egyptians regarded the Nile pollution as a taboo, and the one who incorporated with this act, would be cursed by the gods.
- Eating the meat of any sacrificed animal.
- To covet the offerings and property of the temples were taboos.
- Taking improper rewards (bribes) was also a taboo (Fairman 1958, 88).
- Criminal acts; such as theft and murder, crimes of a cultic nature; such as stealing the offerings and defiling the purity of a sacred place were taboos (Okinga 2001, 485).

The Epagomenal Days Taboos

They were the additional five days at the end of each year, the discrepancy that gradually developed between the lunar year of 365 days and the solar year. They were corresponding to the birthdays of the deities; Osiris, Isis, Horus, Set and Nephtyth (Hornung 1992, 58). It was believed that they were a time of mortal danger, and one must know their names to survive from death (Frandsen 1986, 136).

The Menstruation Taboo

Menstruation taboo was among the most universal ones, and the Egyptian material was not exception. The ordinary term for menstruation in Egyptian language was "hsmn(t)". This word was also attested with the meaning "purification"." Janssen" suggested that the term could refer to post-childbirth purification (Janssen 1980, 141), while "Kitchen" has translated the term, as "sick", where it occurred in the "absentee lists" at Deir el-Medina (Kitchen 2000, 361).

Frandsen stated that; "The accumulated evidence for the term hesmen excludes any interpretation other than menstruation." The interrelationship of menstruation and purification is suggestive for the euphemism of the term menstruation which could be a taboo-word (Frandsen 2007, 81).

References to menstruation seemed to show that any contact with women during their periods could be dangerous. This would explain why the menstruation of wives and daughters was accepted as a legitimate cause for a worker absence from work, as was documented in the well-known "absentee lists" from Deir el-Medina. The menstrual women had to get as far as the rear of their houses, or stayed in a specific area, the so-called "women's place", away from their village (Toivari 2001, 164).

The fate of the laundrymen is pitied as was mentioned in the "Instructions of Dua-Kheti"; and their position in the social hierarchy was so humble that, they had to wash the clothes of menstruating women, which were also as a taboo (Frandsen 2001, 346).

Menstruation was believed to have some kind of a bad effect on both woman and her environment. Menstrual woman was forbidden to enter to any sacred and religious sites, thus, her husband became impure that, he should stay at home, either to be away from his work, or to help his wife during this dangerous period. It was suggested that, the blood of menstruation could counteract the vital processes associated with creation, as it has a negative impact on someone who has just given birth, since menstruation indicated the absence of pregnancy and thus the lack of fertility (Frandsen 2007, 106).

 

 

Taboos of the sacred places; "Tombs, Temples and Palaces"

Access to such ceremonial and ritualistic buildings as tombs, temples and palaces, required certain rules of purity, such as abstinence from sexual activity, menstruation and the avoidance of certain types of taboo diet (pigs, fish or honey). The ancient Egyptian dedicated most of his time and effort, preparing for his afterlife. Since the tomb was the most essential element for his eternal survival, he wanted to preserve the tomb itself, its purity, his mummy, iconography and texts. Thus, the thresholds of such sacred places were regarded to be taboos. Certain spells in mortuary literature, regarding magical bricks and clay figurines could function as curses for those who might threaten the purity of those buildings (Silverman 2001, 348).

A text from the temple of Edfu, addressed to the temple priests, as a final reminder to the visitors of those conditions of moral and ritual purity, indicated the god's particular concern with purity, saying; "Beware of entering in purity, for God loves purity more than millions of offerings, more than hundreds of thousands of electrum, he sates himself with truth, and his heart is satisfied with great purity." (Fairman 1958, 90).

Herodotus, mentioned that; "The Egyptians were very careful of their purity. They were the first people, who prohibited anyone, especially the priests from entering to such sacred areas after intercourse or reciting religious formula, unless they were completely purified". To be in a priestly function, it required certain rules of purity, the priest must be clean-shaven, and have his nails cut. From at least the Late Period and onwards, it became compulsory for priests to be circumcised, as a part of the purification necessary for the performance of their temple duties (Frandsen 2007, 105).

The ancient Egyptians practiced circumcision for cleanliness sake. The victory stela of the Kushite ruler "Piy" indicated that; "They were forbidden to enter the royal palace, because they had not been circumcised" (Shaw And Nicholson 1997, 281).

RESULTS OF OTHER STUDIES
1. The word " bwt " was identified as " taboo " in Egyptian language , during all periods and in different texts , although the term was occasionally used in a loose sense (Montet 1950, 85; Frandsen 1986, 135) .

2. The principal determinative of the word " bwt " was the fish , that refers to impurity , dirt , bad thing and evil action. The term " bwt " is singular , while the plural is " bwtyw " or "bwyw " (Montet 1950, 88) .

3. "Bwt" was regarded to be the opposite of "maat" (world order, truth, justice and cosmic balance). Thus, violating a taboo , had a very bad impact on its doer , an act that would bring about the second death for people and god involved (Frandsen 2000, 10) .

4. Taboos were instilled by the god, or the king (represented the god on earth), to reestablish the primeval order, the so-called "maat". The political power of a person was delimited by the taboos he could impose (Shaw And Nicholson 1997, 281).

5. Taboos affected access to such sacred and ritualistic buildings ( tombs , temples and palaces ) , this adhered to certain rules of purity such as abstinence from sexual activity , menstruation, avoidance of certain types of food ( pigs , fish or honey ) , going upside down , or even being circumcised (Frandsen 1985, 155) .

6. Taboos varied from time to time, depended mainly on the local cosmology. Egypt was divided into provinces; each one had its local god, festival, emblem and also its own taboos (Frandsen 2007, 87).

7. Pigs were a taboo meat in Egypt , as the pig was the main sacred animal presenting god Set , the evil-god , the murderer of god Osiris, and the adversary of god Horus (Ikram 2001, 390).

8. Fish was also a taboo, in regard with the association of fish with certain gods and goddesses, and according to the Myth of Osiris, the fish was believed that had consumed the penis of Osiris (Danneskiold 1988, 18) .

9. Taboo diet , was probably never absolute , and may have applied exclusively to a certain segment of society ( the elite and the priests) , or even in such religious building , or only at particular times of the year (Ikram, 2001, 390)

10. Walking upside down was among the taboo actions, as the Egyptian saw themselves as right side up with respect to their physical realm. Walking upside down had to be avoided at all costs and not only by heavenly accession, as its doer was damned that he could eat his own excrement or drink his urine, loose his offerings and after life (Kadish 1979, 213).

11. Eating excrement and drinking urine were taboos, as they spoil the purity of the deceased which was a focal point in the hereafter (Kadish 1979, 212).

12. The epagomenal days were taboo, being a time of mortal danger and one had to know their names for surviving from death (Frandsen 1986, 141).

13. Menstruation taboos are among the most universal, and the Egyptian material is not exception. The Egyptians connected menstruation with impurity and danger that the menstrual woman had to stay at the rear of her house or in the so-called "women's place" , away from her village . The" absentee lists" from Deir el-Medina referred that menstruation of wives and daughters, was an accepted excuse for workers to take days- off (Frandsen 2007, 99)

CONCLUSION
• The origin of the word “taboo " is the Egyptian term " bwt " , which was used by the Egyptians to refer to the concept of taboo , from the Old kingdom until the Graeco-Roman period .

• The bird was occasionally used as a determinative for the word bwt; as a sign of bad things and prohibited behaviors in Egypt .
• The pigs were a taboo diet during the Old and Middle kingdoms, relating to their association with god Set ( the evil-god in Egypt ) , together with their impurity and uncleanness . As early as the New Kingdom and onwards, the pig was regarded as cheap , low-status food for the poor . Thus the pig could be a taboo diet for the elite , priests or at specific times of the years .

• Taboos were rarely depicted on artistic representations, formal and official contexts , and especially on funerary and religious texts , for example sexual acts are completely avoided in formal and ritualistic texts or scenes .

• Purity was a very important issue for the Egyptians, either in their daily life or in the hereafter . The first class taboos were those which threaten a man's purity such as (menstruation , intercourse, certain kinds of food as pigs , eating excrement and drinking urine ) .

• Being a part of the Egyptian myths and religion , or representing an evil-god , was enough to regard something a taboo such as ( pigs , fish and Honey ) .

• Violating an action against maat or the universal order was a taboo, as walking upside down , forgetting the epagomenal days , theft and murder , eating the meat of a sacrificed animal and to diminish the offerings or property of a temple .

 

 

Table (1) : The classifications of Taboos in Ancient Egypt
CLASSIFICATION TABOO
- Foodstuff Taboo - Pig meat and fish.
- Taboo actions and behaviors - Walking upside down.
- Eating excrement and drinking urine.
- Forgetting the so-called epagomenal days.
- To cause pollution to the Nile.
- Taking bribes.
- Criminal acts, such as theft and murder.
- Eating the meat of a sacrificed animal.
- To diminish the offerings or property of a temple.
- Defiling the purity of a sacred place.
- Contemporary Taboos (avoided in entering a sacred area ; tombs , temples and royal palaces ) . - Menstrual woman.
- Intercourse and sexual activities.
- males who were not circumcised .
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