Chapter 4: GREECE AND IRAN, 1000-30 BCE
Ancient Iran, 1000-50 BCE
Geography and Resources
-surrounded by Zagros Mts to the west, Caucasus Mts and Caspian Sea to NW and N, Afghanistan mts and Baluchistan desert to east and SE, and Persian Gulf to SW
-limited water resources
-best watered and populous parts of country lie north and west (not dense pop.)
-underground irrigation channels (labor intensive)
-central authority organized large amounts of laborers
-mineral resources= copper, tin, iron, gold, and silver
The Rise of the Persian Empire
-Medes was first to achieved political organization
-influneced by Mesopotamia and Urartu
-(late 7th century BCE) played part in Assyrian Empire destruction
-expaned to SE toward Persian Gulf
-Persian rulers presently called Achaemenids
-marriage alliance with Medes
-Cyrus- (600-530 BCE) Founder of Achaemenid Persian Empire. 550-530 BCE, conquered Media, Lydia, and Babylon. Revered in the traditions of both Iran and subject peoples, he employed Persians and Medes in his administration and respected the institutions and beliefs of subject peoples
-conquered Anatolia and Sardis (capital of Lydia in Anatolia, 536 BCE)
-(539B BCE) sought after Mesopotamia
-respected Babylonian pristhood
-Medes and Persians became similar with only distinct difference of dialect and dressing
-male head of household had authority over family members
-society: warriors, priests, and peasants
-warriors were a landowning aristocracy, included king
-priests (Magi) were ritual specialists responsible for sacrifices
-commoners were village-based farmer and shepherds
-Cyrus’ son Cambyses (r. 530-522 BCE) sought for Egypt
-known as cruel in Greek sources but Egyptian docs. Stating him as respecting native traditions
-(522 BCE) died
-Darius I (r. 522-486 BCE) seized throne
-vital roles went to leading Persian families
-expanded Persia eastward to Indus valley and w. into Europe
-promoted maritime routs
-fleet to explore water from Indus Delta to Red Sea and linked canal from Red Sea with Nile
-second founder of Persian Empire
-created body of “laws of the King” and royal judges
-Persians built forts in Thrace
Imperial Organization and Ideology
-Darius I’s empire: eastern Europe to Pakistan, S. Russia to Sudan, largest empire in the world
-divided into 20 provinces
-satrap- governor of province in Achaemenid Persian Empire, often a relative of the king. Responsible for protection of the province and for forwarding tribute to central administration. Satraps in outlying provinces enjoyed considerable independence
-connected to royal family
-court was mini version of royal court
-families lived in province governed by head, gained knowledge about local conditions, and had connections with native elite
-resulted into intermarriage, cultural, and technological exchanges
-collect and send tribute to king (forwarded to central treasury)
-(4th century BCE) Babylonia’s economic decline with gold and silver inflation
-mainted royal roads connected outlying provinces to empire’s center
-garrisonscontrolled movements
-way stations for receiving travelers and couriers
-administrative center= Susa (ancient capital of Elam)
-employed scribes and trained administrators
-king was polygamous
-King Ahasuerus and Esther in Book of Esther in Hebrew Bible
-women used for increasing power
-Darus married Cyrus’ daughter
-Alexander the Great married daughter of last Persian king
-king’s staff: educated sons of Persian aristocrats, noblemen, central administration, royal bodyguard, courtiers, and slaves
-king gave some land to supporters
-Persepolis- complex of palaces, reception halls, and treasury buildings erected by Persian kings Darius I and Xerxes in Persian homeland. New Year’s festival, coronations, weddings, and funerals of Persian kings buried in cliff-tombs nearby) believed to be celebrated there
-some workers were POW
-divided into groups of genders and children
-women received less status, but pregnant woman/woman with baby received more
-men and women performing skilled jobs received more than unskilled counterparts
-Zoroastrianism- religion originating in ancient Iran with prophet Zoroaster. Centered on single benevolent deity—Ahuramazda—who engaged in 12,000-year struggle with demonic forces before prevailing and restoring pure world. Emphasizing truth telling, purity, and reverence for nature, religion demanded that human choose sides in struggle between good and evil. Those whose good conduct indicated their support for Ahuramazda would be rewarded in afterlife. Others punished. Religion of Achaemenid and Sasanid Persians, Zoroastrianism spread w/in their realms and influenced Judaism, Christianity, and other faiths
The Rise of the Greeks, 1000-500 BCE
Geography and Resources
-bounded by Atlantic Ocean (w), Alps (n), Syria desert (e), and Sahara (s)
-rose from lands bordering Aegean Sea: Greek mainland, islands of Aegean, and Anatolia’s west coast
-(1000 BCE) began to settle on west Anatolia
-mainland farmers depended on rainfall for water
-grain, olive, grapevines
-sheeps and goats
-limited arable land, thing topsoil, and sparse rainfall in S. didn’t sustain large pop.
-cattle and horses abundant in wetter N.
0few mineral deposit and little timber
-building stone and clay was abundant
-obtained timber from N. Aegean, gold and iron from Anatolia, copper from Cyprus, tin from W. Mediterranean, and grain from Black Sea, Egypt and Sicily
The Emergence of the Polis
-“Dark Age” (ca 1150-800 BCE) which Greece and Aegean region isolated
-ended when Phoenician ships visited Aegean
-influenced “Archaic” period (ca 800-480 BCE)
-increase of pop. due to food and raw material import and intensive use of land
-adapted to Phoenician’s writing system and created alphabet
-gradually converted from oral culture to literate
-Polis- Greek term for city-state, urban center and agricultural territory under its control. Characteristic form of political organization in S. and C. Greece in Archaic and Classical periods. Of the hundreds of city-states in Mediterranean and Black Sea regions settled by Greeks, some were oligarchic, others democratic, depending on powers delegated to Council and Assembly
-characteristics of urban centers:
-acropolis offered refuge
-agora was open area where citizens ratified leaders’ decisions or to line up with weapons before military ventures with govt. buildings and marketplace
-fortified walls
-hoplites- heavily armored Greek infantry man of Archaic and Classical periods who fought in the close-packed phalanx formation. Hoplite armies—militias composed of middle- and upper-class citizens supplying their own equipment—were for centuries superior to all other military forces
-states defended by armies of private citizens instead of professional soldiers
-independent “colonies” in distant island due to increased pop.
-new settlements in n Aegean area, around Black Sea, Libyan coast, s. Italy, and Sicily island
-(6th century) invention of coins for rapid exchange of goods
-aristocracy gained power with owning land and had peasants and debt-salves working
-middle class were craftsmen and merchants
-tyrant- the term Greeks used to describe someone who seized and held power in violation of the normal community’s procedures and traditions. (7th and 6th century BCE) Appeared in many Greek city-states, often taking advantage of disaffection of emerging middle class and, by weakening the old elite, unwittingly contributing to evolution of democracy
-democracy- system of govt. in which all “citizens” have equal political and legal rights, privileges and protections, as in the Greek city-state of Athens in 5th & 4th centuries BCE
-religion had wide range of cults and beliefs
-“Iliad” and “Odyssey”
-sacrifice- gift given to deity, often with aim of creating a relationship, gaining favor, and obligating the god to provide some benefit to the sacrifice, sometimes in order to sustain deity, and guarantee continuing vitality of natural world. Object devoted to deity could be simple as a cup of win poured on ground, live animal slain on alter, or, in extreme cases, rituals killing of human being
New Intellectual Currents
-individualism led to concept of humanism (valuing uniqueness, talents, and rights of individual)
-pre-Socratic philosopher rejected traditional religious explanations of origins of world and sought rational explanations
-primal elements of earth, air, fire, and water to form natural substances
-microscopic atoms colliding randomly and combining to form substances
-(600 BCE, Ionia) logographers (prose account writers) stored information and gathered data on wide range of topics
-first to write in everyday speech instead of poetry
-Herodotus- (ca. 485-425 BCE) heir to technique of investigation developed by Greeks in late Archaic period. Came from Greek community in Anatolia and traveled extensively, collecting info in w. Asia and Mediterranean lands. Traced background of and chronicled the Persian Wars between the Greek city-states and Persian Empire, thus originating W. tradition of historical writing (“father of history”)
Athens and Sparta
-(1000 BCE) Spartan ancestors immigrated into Peloponnese
-(7th century) invaded Messenia
-Sparta became prepared military camp
-Messenia and Laconia’s (homeland) territory divided into lots and assigned to citizens
-helots worked land and gave portion to masters
-young boys taken from families and disciplined into soldier until whole life controlled by state
-Sparta didn’t participate in any renaissance
-no poets or artists
-metals and coinage banned to maintain equality
-forbid commerce
-Sparta maintain peace through Peloponnesian League (alliances between Sparta and neighbors)
-Athens was populous and large with entire region of Attica
0fertile plains and olive trees
-(594) Solon appointed lawgiver and divided Athenian citizens into classes based on annual yield of their arms
-top three could hold state offices but lowest class couldn’t hold positions but could participate in Assembly meetings
-broke monopoly of aristocratic families and allowed social and political mobility
-guaranteed freedom for citizens by abolishing enslavement due to failure to repay debts
-political crisis continued
-(546 BCE) tyrant Pisistratus ruled and shift allegiance of rural population to Athens
-monumental building projects (Temple of Athena)
-created and expanded major festivals
-passed tyranny to sons but Sparta helped to turn family out in 6th century BCE’s last decade
-Pericles- (ca. 495-429 BCE) Aristocratic leader who guided the Athenian state through the transformation to full participatory democracy for all male citizens, supervised construction of the Acropolis, and pursued a policy of imperial expansion that led to Peloponnesian War. Formulated a strategy of wearing down but died from plague early in war
-transferred power to Assembly, council of 500, and People’s Courts
-men with moderate/little means could hold office and participate in political process
-Assembly of all citizens became main part of political life
-proposals, decisions, and issues
The Struggle of Persia and Greece, 546-323 BCE
Early Encounters
-(499 BCE) Ionian Revolt- uprising of Greeks and other subject peoples on w. frontier
-Persian Wars- conflicts between Greek city-states and the Persian Empire, ranging from Ionian Revolt (499-494 BCE) through Darius’s punitive expedition that failed at Marathon (490 BCE) and the defeat of Xerxes’ massive invasion of Greece by Spartan-led Hellenic League (490-479 BCE). 1st major setback for Persian arms launched the Greeks into their period of greatest cultural productivity. Herodotus chronicled these events in first “history” in W. traditions
-Xerxes (r. 485-465 BCE) succeeded Darius
-commanded Persian fleet to invaded c. and s. Greece while demanding tokens of submission
-Hellenic league- alliance of Spartans resisting Persians
-failed at first at Thermopylae in c. Greece
-(480 BCE) Persains conquered Athens and lured by League into straits of Salamis
-lost advantage and suffered defeat
-(479 BCE) Persian land army defeated at Platea
-Athens became respected with stubborn refusal of submission and role of navy
-Athens replaced Sparta as naval leaders against Persia to drive them away from Aegean and free Greek states under control
-(477 BCE) Delian League- volunatray alliance of Greek states to go against Persia
-less than 20 years, forces led by Athenian and freed all Greek city-states except those in distant Cyprus
The Height of Athenian Power
-(480-323 BCE) Classical period
-Athenians build up army and demanded money from Delian League
-naval mastery transformed Greek warfare and politics with more power and wealth to Athens
-trireme- Greek and Phoenician warship of 5th and 4th centuries BCE . sleek and light. Powered by 170 oars arranged in 3 vertical tiers. Manned by skilled sailors, capable of short bursts of speed and complex maneuvers
-democratic system
-hoplites in middle/upper classes
-rowers in lower class but had full rights
-port, Piraeus, grew to be most vital trading center in E. Mediterranean
-money collected from subject states paid for democracy and building projects
-Sophists (traveling teachers) instructed students in logic and public speech
-new discipline of rhetoric (construction of attractive and persuasive arguments) gave advantage in politics
-Socrates- Athenian philosopher (ca. 470-399 BCE) who shifted the emphasis of philosophical investigation from questions of natural science to ethics and human behavior. Attracted young disciples from elite families but made enemies by revealing the ignorance and pretensions of others, culminating in his trial and execution by the Athenian state
-responsible for student trying to overthrow democracy and controversial teachings of Sophists
-death by hemlock
-(ca. 428-347 BCE) student Plato was literate and founded the Academy (school for young men’s higher education)
-didn’t write down most advanced stages of philosophical and spiritual training
-Aristotle (384-322 BCE) was from Stagira and former Academy student
-tutor of Philip II’s Alexander
-opened school, Lyceum
-focused on politics, philosophy, ethics, logic, poetry, rhetoric, physics, astronomy, meterology, zoology, and psychology
Inequality in Classical Greece
-Attica’s true citizens were free adult males of pre Athenina ancestry
-(4th and 5th century) slaves were 1/3 of Attica’s pop. and treated as property
-Greek slaves were domestic servants
-Spartan women expected to bear and raise strong children
-encouraged to exercise and enjoyed unusual public visibility and outspokenness
-Athenian women were confined and suppressed
-Athenian marriages of unequal affairs
-arranged for purpose of producing (male) offspring
-couples had limited daily contact with men outdoor and women indoors
-men justified women’s confinement by claiming them as immoral and would let other men’s children into the household to threaten family property and violate citizenship rights policy
-women able to get out during women’s festivals (Thesmophoria festival)
-bisexuality was common
Failure of the City-State and the Triumph of the Macedonians
-Peloponnesian War- protracted (431-404 BCE) and costly conflict between the Athenian and Spartan alliance systems that convulsed most of the Greek world. War largely result of Athenian imperialism. Possession of a naval empire allowed Athens to fight a war of attrition. Ultimately, Sparta won because of Athenian errors and Persian financial support
-Spartans took overseas empire until opposed by other city-states
-(4th century BCE) conflicts between Greek states
-King’s Peace of 387 BCE stating that all of W. Asia was passed to Persia
-Philip II (r. 359-336 BCE) transformed Macedonia into military dominance
-improved traditional hoplite formation
-increased power and mobility with spears and less armor
-use of infantry and cavalry
-siege equipment and first catapult
-(338 BCE) conquered southern states established Confederacy of Corinth to control Greek city-states
-appointed himself military commander against Persia
-died in 336 BCE
-Alexander- (356-323 BCE) King of Macedonia in n. Greece. 334-323 BCE, conquered Persian Empire, reached Indus Valley, founded many Greek-style cities, and spread Greek culture across Middle East. AKA Alexander the Great
-defeated King Darius III’s (r. 335-330 BCE) forces in 3 battles
-replaced Persian officials with his Macedonian and Greek comrades
-admitted some Persiands and Iranians into army and as courtiers
-adopted elements of Persian dress and court ceremonial
-married several Iranian women for connections
-(323 BCE) death at 32
The Hellenistic Synthesis, 323-30 BCE
-no successors for Alexander= struggles for control
-empire broke into 3 kingdoms ruled by a Macedonian dynasty: Seleucid, Ptolemaic, and Antigonid kingdoms
-Hellenistic Age- historians’ term for the era, usually dated 323-30 BCE, in which Greek culture spread across w. Asia and ne. Africa after the conquests of Alexander the Great. Period ended with fall of last major Hellenistic kingdom to Rome, but Greek cultural influence persisted until spread of Islam in 7th century CE
-long distance trade, communication, new institutions, and cultivation of sophisticated tastes in art and literature
-(3rd and 2nd century BCE) Parthians conquered Iran
-Seclucid monarch ruled from capital at Syrain Antioch
-maintained administrative structure similar to Persian system
-resumed finding Greek-style cities for administrative centers and attract colonists
-Ptolomies- the Macedonian dynasty, descended from one of Alexander the Great’s officers, that ruled Egypt for 3 centuries (323-30 BCE). From capital at Alexandria on Mediterranean coast, the Ptolemies largely took over the system created by Egyptian pharaohs to extract wealth of the land, rewarding Greeks and Hellenized non-Greeks serving in the military and administration
-encouraged immigration of Greeks and exchanged their skills and collaboration with land and privileged position
-didn’t try making native pop. adopt Greek language or ways
-Queen Cleopatra (r. 51-30 BCE) learned Egyptian language
-Alexandria- city on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt founded by Alexander. Capital of Ptolemies. Contained the famous Library and the Museum—center for leading scientific and literary figures. Merchants engaged in trade with areas bordering the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean
-Mausoleum of Alexander and lighthouse built
-achievements in astronomy and mathematics (Euclid and Claudius Ptolemy)
-Euclid (math, ca. 276-194 BCE) and Claudius Ptolemy (astronomy, 2nd century CE) influenced Europe and Islamic world
-Aristarchus (ca. 310-230 BCE) argued that earth was center of universe
-Eratosthenes (ca. 276-194 BCE) accurately calculated Earth’s circumference
-Archimedes (ca. 287-211 BCE) invented mechanical devices
-Galen (ca. 129-210 CE) focused on medicine
-residents enjoyed citizenship in a Greek-style polis
-public baths, shaded arcades, theaters, and gymnasiums
-Antigonid dynasty ruled Macedonian homeland and n. Greece
-garrisons for holding central and S. Greece
-S. states banded together (Achean League in Peloponnese) to maintain local independence while polling resources and military power
-Sparta was confident in themselves in fighting against Macedonian armies w/o joining confederations and Athens remained neutral
-indigenous people followed Greek ways to have higher social position
Conclusion
-Archaemenid Persia had variety of landscapes, peoples, and systems
-managed with co-opt leaders and government demonstrated flexibility and tolerance
-Zoroastrian religion held authority for king
-fostered trading and prosperity with uniform system of law and administration
-Persian administration relied on scribes and written languages of its Mesopotamian, Syrian, and Egyptian subjects
-480 and 479 BCE Greek victories allowed city-states to evolve politically and culturally
-Greek domination had more cultural impact on Middle East than Persian Empire
-Greek-style cities culturally influenced native populations
-Greek alphabet encouraged literacy and effective sending of information in the content of your new page here.