The modern presidential election campaign is a marathon affair in which self-selected candidates must prepare for a strong start in the nominating contests and center their general election strategies on media, issues, and a baseline of support.  The extended campaign process heightens the public’s sense that the presidency is at the center of the American political system.

The modern presidency could not operate without a large staff of assistants, experts, and high-level managers, but the sheer size of this staff makes it impossible for the president to exercise complete control over it.

The correlates of presidential success and failure in policy making are also assessed in this chapter.  The author analyzes the factors affecting presidential leadership, and explains how presidents help and hurt themselves in their efforts to lead the nation.  Further points of interest include the following:

Presidential influence on national policy is highly visible.  Whether a president
succeeds or fails in getting her or his policies enacted depends heavily on the nature of the circumstances, the stage of the presidency, partisan support in Congress, and the nature of the policy issue (i.e., foreign or domestic).

The president’s election by national vote and position as singular chief executive
ensure that others will be attentive to his or her policy ideas; to lead effectively,
a president must have the assistance of other public officials.

The president often finds it difficult to maintain a high level of public support as
Americans have unreasonably high policy expectations of the president and tend
to blame her or him for national problems.

Chapter Summary

The presidency has become a more powerful institution than the Framers envisioned.  The U.S. Constitution grants the president substantial military, diplomatic, legislative, and executive powers, and in each case the president’s authority has measurably increased over time.  Underlying this change is the president’s position as the one leader chosen by the entire nation (albeit indirectly).  The public’s support and expectations fuel presidential claims of broad authority.

National crises have contributed to the growth of presidential power.  The people expect the president to lead strongly during times of national emergencies, in part because Congress is poorly suited to the decisive and continuous action that emergencies require.  Changing world and national conditions have also enhanced the presidency as an institution.  These changes have placed new and greater demands on the federal government, demands that the president is in some ways better able to address than Congress.

Four systems of presidential selection have been utilized in U.S. history.  The first centered on Congress and the Electoral College, the second on party conventions, the third on a convention system with some state primaries, and the current one on state primaries and open caucuses as the dominant method of choosing presidential nominees.  Each succeeding system has been more “democratic” in that it was designed to give the public greater influence in the choice of the president and thus to make the selection more legitimate.

To gain one’s party nomination, a strong showing in the early primaries is necessary because news coverage and other resources flow toward winning candidates.  This movement is a critical factor in nominating races but normally benefits a candidate who by virtue of past record, stands on issues, ideology, or other factors already is in the optimum position to capture the nomination.  Once nominated, the major-party candidates received federal funds for the general election campaign; much of this money is spent on televised political advertising.  The candidates themselves spend their time traveling around the nation, concentrating on states with large numbers of electoral votes and trying to get favorable coverage from the journalists who follow them constantly.

Although the campaign tends to personalize the presidency, the responsibilities of the modern presidency far exceed any president’s personal capacities.  To meet their obligations, presidents have surrounded themselves with large staffs of advisors, policy experts, and managers.  These staff members enable the president to extend control over the executive branch while providing her/him with the information necessary for policy making.  All recent presidents have discovered, however, that their control of staff resources is incomplete and that some things that others do on their behalf actually work against what they are trying to accomplish.

Presidential success rates in getting their initiatives through Congress have varied considerably.  The factors in a president’s success include the presence or absence of national conditions that require strong leadership from the White House; the stage of the president’s term (success usually comes early); the strength of the president’s party in Congress; and the focus of the policy issue (presidents do somewhat better in the area of foreign policy than in domestic policy).

As sole chief executive and the nation’s top elected leader, the president can always expect that his or her policy and leadership efforts will receive attention.  This is especially true given the president’s almost guaranteed access to the media (especially television).  However, other institutions, particularly Congress, have the authority to make the president’s leadership effective or ineffective.  If the president is to succeed over the long term, she or he must have a proper conception of the presidency.  Even more importantly, a president must have the help of other officials, and to get their cooperation the president must respond to their concerns as well. 

To retain an effective leadership position, the president also depends on the strong backing of the American people.  Recent presidents have made extensive use of the media to build public support for their programs.  Yet they have had difficulty maintaining that support throughout their terms of office.  A major reason is that the public expects far more from its presidents than they can deliver.

Major Concepts

1.         Whig theory (p.366)
2.         stewardship theory (p.366)
3.         legitimacy (of election) (p.369)
4.         open party caucuses (p.372)
5.         momentum (p.373)
6.         unit rule (p.376)
7.         cabinet (p.382)
8.         honeymoon period (p.386)
9.         presidential approval rating (p.392)

Lecture Outline

This lecture outline closely follows the text in its organization.  The instructor can use this outline as a lecture aid.

I. Foundations of the Modern Presidency

The Framers did not anticipate the development of presidential selection via popular election.  Yet with the expansion of presidential power particularly in the twentieth century, presidential elections have become tiresome ordeals because the “prize” is highly coveted as president’s can wield a great deal of power and influence in American politics.  Thus presidential elections have become  “marathons”, a phenomenon that Al Gore and George W. Bush both experienced in 2000. 

1. The Framers wanted an independent president but one with restricted powers.

1. Article II has relatively vague statements about presidential powers.

1. The Framers did not anticipate expansion of presidential power.

1. The Framers did not foresee the leadership implications of the presidency.

The president can claim to represent the nation due to the twin features of national election and singular authority which foster a strong presidency.

1. According to the Whig theory of the presidency, the president was limited to expressly granted constitutional authority.

1. Those subscribing to stewardship theory call for a strong, assertive presidential role, a presidential view which is prevalent today.

1. A strong president is needed to respond to national and foreign crises.  A large and active government also is conducive to a strong presidency.

1. The president is the foreign policy leader for the United States, a nation with an important political, military, and economic role in the international arena.

1. With the expansion in the role of the state in areas of economic regulation and social welfare, the president as chief executive and legislative leader has necessarily gained power.

II. Choosing the President

The presidential selection process has involved the electoral college, the party convention system, and the primary and open caucus systems.  The presidential selection system has changed from an elite-dominated process to one that is based on popular support.

The race for the presidential nomination is a lengthy one that is influenced by a few key factors.

1. Gaining the media’s attention is important in order for a candidate to acquire the name recognition essential for strong popular support.

1. A strong showing in the early primary contests creates momentum, which creates further public support in subsequent primaries; lack of momentum leads to a loss of public support, news coverage, and financial backing.

1. A candidate must have strength of one kind or another to prevail in a long nomination race, and factors such as name recognition, issues, and group support play an important role.

1. The Federal Election Campaign Act of 1974 provides federal matching funds to candidates as a measure to help lesser-known contenders. Money is a vital factor in the process.

The national party convention is used to nominate and showcase the party’s presidential candidate.

1. The convention is a time to cement party unity although party divisions developed during the nominating race cannot always be healed.

1. The vice-presidential nominee is chosen at the convention according to the wishes of the presidential nominee.

Winning the general election requires a winning coalition built on partisanship, issues, and image.

1. While Democrats outnumber Republicans, the cleavages within the Democratic party are far greater.  Democratic nominees work to hold their party’s coalition together and Republicans work to bring non-Republican voters into their fold. Independent candidates are unlikely competitors.

1. All presidential nominees must identify key issues on which to build their appeal.

1. Image is more than looking good on television; a strong image depends chiefly on the candidate’s ability to project the appearance of a strong, competent, and trustworthy leader.

1. Candidates combine the above factors into a strategy designed to gain electoral support; election strategy is also based on winning the states with the largest number of electoral votes. The importance of electoral votes is magnified by the unit rule.

Money and the media have important roles in general elections.

1. Major party nominees qualify for federal funds for campaign financing.

1. Television advertising and televised debates are both important and permanent fixtures of presidential campaigns.  Due to the recent decline in partisanship, voters are now more easily influenced by a campaign’s issues, events, and candidates.

The winners of presidential elections have been white males.

1. The majority have been affluent Anglo-Saxon Protestants.

1. Nearly a third of the presidents had previously been vice-presidents. All have held high public office except four military generals.

III. Staffing the Presidency

The duties of the modern president far exceed the capacities of any one person, and hence a large executive staff is almost mandatory. The president’s appointment power is significant. Appointees are important sources of information and extend the president’s influence into the bureaucracy.

1. The Executive Office of the President (EOP) is the president’s personal bureaucracy, and includes the National Security Council, White House Office, Council of Economic Advisers, and Office of Management and Budget.

1. The vice-presidency has no constitutional authority of its own.  However, recent presidents have given vice-presidents important responsibilities.

1. Personal assistants in the White House Office are an important asset and are valued for their complete and direct loyalty to the president.  Policy experts, a primary source of knowledge and advice, may be less politically savvy or loyal than the personal advisers.

1. The president’s cabinet members are important players within their specific areas. The cabinet as a collective decision-making body is a thing of the past.

1. The president also appoints and is assisted by the heads and top executives of federal agencies.

A president’s responsibilities make it impossible for him or her to direct and keep track of the actions that appointees carry out in his or her name.  Furthermore, the president may not be able to control numerous, independently-oriented subordinates.  Lower-level career appointees may be “captured” by their own agency and thus be resistant to presidential overtures.

The presidency is a “double-edged sword.”  Presidents have greater responsibilities than their predecessors and thus more power, but they must rely on staffers who may or may not act in the best interests of the president.

IV. Factors in Presidential Leadership

A variety of factors influence presidential leadership.

1. The external circumstances faced by a president have an important influence on his or her ability to lead; in times of crises, presidents can wield enormous influence, while the capacity to lead diminishes during normal circumstances.

1. Every presidential term can be divided into stages corresponding to the level of authority available to the president, determining her or his ability to influence events.  Thus, the “honeymoon period” for most presidents is a time when quick and decisive actions may occur; conversely, presidents are not as effective later in their terms of office.

1. Presidents tend to have somewhat more power and influence in foreign affairs than in domestic affairs–Wildavsky’s “two presidencies” thesis.  The factors that determine success or failure in one area are common to both policy areas.  In foreign affairs, presidents are assisted by their access to information from the various executive intelligence agencies.  Constraining presidential power is the end of the Cold War, an event inviting a resurgence of congressional involvement in foreign policy.

Acquiring congressional support is essential for becoming and remaining a successful president.

1. Not all presidents possess the political skill required to successfully manage relations with Congress.

1. While presidents can exercise the veto to influence Congress, its use may signal executive weakness or undermine relations with Congress.

1. Presidents must utilize the power to persuade in a system of divided powers.

1. Presidents are more successful if they treat members of Congress as a constituency, responding to their interests and needs. The degree of partisan support for a president within Congress can have an impact upon presidential performance.  For example, President Lyndon Johnson was very successful in obtaining congressional approval of his legislative agenda in 1965 when the Democrats had a solid numeric majority in both houses of Congress.

1. There have been periodic collisions between the president and Congress. The War Powers Act is the most significant congressional attempt to restrain the president.

Public support has a major effect on the president’s ability to attain policy goals.

1. The public tends to attribute economic downturns to the presidency, thus lowering overall public confidence in the institution.

1. Presidential approval ratings usually decrease over time. The personal character of the president has some effect on this measure.

1. International crises nearly always increase the president’s approval rating in the short term due to a public tendency to “rally around the flag.”

Modern presidents must use television.  Television creates advantages and disadvantages for the president. 

1. A major advantage of the modern president is his/her guaranteed access to television such as “going public,” bypassing the Congress and appealing directly to the American people.

1. Presidents must put their “spin on the news” to counter negative reporting which is disadvantageous to the president.

1. Frequent television appearances and claims of success add to the public’s belief that the president is in charge of the national government.  This perception is “the illusion of presidential government.”

1. The irony is that the presidential office grows weaker as the number of problems increase.

Complementary Lecture Topics

Below are suggestions for lectures or lecture topics that will complement the text.  In general, these topics assume that students will have read the chapter beforehand.

1. Some presidential scholars claim that it is the public, and not the Constitution, that is the source of presidential authority.  Evaluate the merits of this argument.

1. The process of choosing presidential nominees has changed significantly over the past few decades.  Among other things, the old elite of party leaders—governors, mayors, members of Congress, and party chairpersons—has given way to a new elite of journalists and the hired campaign consultants.  Is the new system more democratic?  What are the implications of this shift?

1. Which personal and political aspects of a candidate are rewarded by the current system of electing presidents?  Are the attributes of a strong candidate the same as those of a strong president?  Why or why not?  What changes in the presidential selection process will encourage the selection of better candidates?

1. The president needs a large staff to carry out the responsibilities of office, but the very size of his staff threatens the president’s control of the office.  What are some possible solutions to this dilemma and can it ever be fully resolved?

1. Theodore Roosevelt wished he could be “the president and Congress too,” and enact as well as propose legislation.  Roosevelt’s wish corresponds to the position, for example, of British prime ministers, who are both chief executive and legislative head of their governments.  What are the policymaking advantages and disadvantages of each system?  Would an increase in presidential authority by means such as a line item veto improve the American system?