Chapter 31: World War II

- Timeline -
1931- Japanese forces invade Manchuria
1936- The Spanish Civil War begins
1939- Germany invades Poland; WWII begins
1945- Germany and Japan surrender; WWII ends

Section 1: The Path to War

- Introduction -
In the 1930’s the Western democracies watched uneasily as militaristic dictatorships came to power in Europe and Asia. Despite their fears, Britain, France, and the U.S. could not agree on what steps to take to ensure collective security (what was needed to defend their common interests against enemy attack. Much of the unrest in Europe and Asia can be traced to the peace settlements made at the end of WWI. France, G.B. and the U.S. were substantially satisfied with these settlements; Japan, Italy, and Germany were not.

- Imperialism -
Japan’s Expansion in Asia – Japan was the first of the non-democratic powers to reveal its territorial ambitions in the interwar period. The Japanese military used a bomb explosion on the South Manchurian Railway in September 1931 as an excuse to overrun Manchuria. The following year Japan established Manchuria as an independent state, renamed it Manchukuo, and set up former Chinese emperor Pu Yi as puppet ruler. When China protested, the League of Nations ordered a commission under British rule to investigate the affair. The British commissioner laid the blame squarely on Japan and ordered that Manchuria be reinstated to China. Japan withdrew from the League, thus boosting the expansionist ambitions of Italy and Germany. The League proved powerless.

Italy’s Conquest of Ethiopia – The relative ease with which Japan acquired Manchuria encouraged Italy to make a similar move. Italy’s goal was to secure control of the ancient kingdom of Ethiopia in eastern Africa. In 1943 Italian and Ethiopian forces clashed in a disputed zone on the border of Ethiopia and Italian Somaliland. When Mussolini demanded an apology and reparations, the Ethiopians asked the League to investigate. The League concluded that since each side viewed the area where the incident took place as its own territory, neither side was to blame. The League did not satisfy Mussolini, who thought an Ethiopian colony would enhance Italy’s image as a world power. Consequently, in October 1935, Mussolini ordered the Italian army to invade Ethiopia. In a dramatic appearance at the League of Nations, Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie appealed for help. This time the League condemned the actions of Italy and voted to impose economic sanctions (measures designed to stop trade and other economic contacts). The League forbade its members to sell Italy arms, but the sanction did not include: oil, coal, and iron; all vital to war efforts. Once again the League’s actions were ineffective. In May 1936 Mussolini formally annexed the African nation.

Spanish Civil War – ­A civil war in Spain further inflamed the international situation in the 1930s. After years of social and economic chaos, King Alfonso XIII abdicated (stepped down) in 1931; Spain became a republic. As a result of several reforms, many including the Catholic Church, right-wing groups began to oppose the republic and restore the old order. For three years the conservative Spanish Nationalists, led by General Francisco Franco, battled against the left-wing Loyalists (Spanish Republicans). Countries quickly took sides. The Soviets supported the Loyalists; the Germans and Italians aided the Nationalists. Western democratic countries refused to intervene because they feared a general European war. Adolf Hitler viewed Germany’s participation in the Spanish Civil War as a way to strengthen ties with Italy and to secure a vital supply of Spanish iron ore and magnesium. Hermann Goering, head of the Luftwaffe or German air force, saw an opportunity: “firstly, to prevent the spread of Communism; secondly, to test my young Luftwaffe in this or that technical aspect.” To accomplish these goals, they used Spanish towns and cities as testing grounds for new weapons and military tactics, such as the combined use of fire and high explosive bombs.

Hitler on the Offensive – Hitler was convinced that Germany needed more “living space”. The Treaty of Versailles forbade German troops in the Rhineland, a German region between the Rhine and the French border. In March 1936 Hitler sent troops into the area. Neither Great Britain nor France reacted, fearful it would create a war. In October 1936, Hitler and Mussolini agreed to the Rome-Berlin Axis, an alliance that they hoped would be the “axis” around which world affairs would turn. Italy and Germany later joined Japan in the Anti-Comintern Pact, an alliance against Soviet Communism; Germany specifically wanted Russia for more “living space”. Viewing this as a threat to his country, Joseph Stalin urged the West to unite against the Axis, but the West, fearing war, refused. [See Nazi Soviet Talks]

Seizing Austria – Hitler grows bolder. For a long time he dreamed of Anschluss (the joining of Austria to Germany. “German-Austria must return to the great mother country,” Hitler wrote. “One blood demands one Reich.” His first attempt was in 1934, but backed down when Italy responded by mobilizing their troops. In 1938, now that Italy and Germany were allies, Hitler tries again. After bullying the Austrian chancellor, Hitler proclaims it part of Germany in March 1938. The chancellor had appealed to the League, but G.B. and France do nothing. Hitler insisted he was the only promoting political stability in central Europe by uniting German-speaking peoples into one country. Western democracies refused to take military action.

Tension Builds in Europe – Austria was Hitler’s first victim. Czechoslovakia was the next. In the late 1930s, it was the only democratic nation in central Europe. It also had a strong army and alliances with France and the Soviet Union. It also had over 3 million Germans living there. Hitler takes advantage of Czechoslovakia’s ethnic problems to destroy the country (there were five different ethnic groups).

Sudeten Crisis – On September 12, 1938, Hitler demanded that the Germans of the Sudetenland, a heavily fortified region in northwestern Czech, be given the right t o self-determination; Czech leaders responding by proclaiming martial law. In an effort to avert an international crisis, G.B. P.M. Neville Chamberlain suggested to Hitler that they meet to discuss the matter. France supported the request. September 15, 1938 they meet. Hitler demands the Sudetenland. At a second meeting, a week later, Chamberlain accepted Hitler’s demands. He thought that a policy of appeasement (granting concessions to maintain peace, would stabilize Europe). As the British and their French allies searched for a peaceful solution, Hitler raised his demands. “The Sudetenland must be united with Germany.

The Munich Conference – On September 29, Chamberlain met with Hitler a third time in Munich, Germany. Also attending were French Premier Edouard Daladier and Italy’s Mussolini. Czech and the Soviet Union were not represented. Mussolini offered a “compromise” that gave Germany control over the Sudetenland. In return, Hitler promised to respect Czech’s sovereignty. He also promised not to take any more EU territory and to settle further disputes by peaceful negotiation. Still hoping to avoid war, they all agree. Czech reluctantly agreed and not soon after controlled them and Slovakia. After this all democratic countries had to stop pretending and prepare for war.

- War -
More German demands followed. In March 1939 Hitler forced Lithuania to give up the German-speaking city of Memel. Next he put pressure on Poland, threatening to take over the Baltic port of Danzig and the Polish Corridor, a narrow strip o Poland land that separated the German region of East Prussia from the rest of Germany. France and G.B. promise to help Poland defend its borders if it becomes necessary. The Polish government accepted the support of the Western democracies; they firmly rejected Hitler’s demands.

The West and the Soviets – To defend Poland, the democracies had to consider the Soviet Union, Poland’s neighbor but also its traditional enemy. Stalin had warned the Western powers about Hitler in the 1930s. There was confusion over whether or not the Fascists or the Communists could be trusted. Chamberlain was suspicious of Stalin.

Nazi Soviet Talks ­– On 23 August, 1939, the world was shocked when, suddenly, Russia and Germany signed a “Non-aggression Pact”. People would have been even more shocked if they had known at the time that, in addition, the two countries had made a number of a “secret protocol” agreeing “spheres of influence” in Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania and Poland. It amounted to an agreement to invade and divide the countries of Eastern Europe between them ... with Poland first on the list.