Chapter 7:
Design of Work Systems

Teaching Notes

The main topics covered in this chapter are job design and work measurement. You may choose to focus on one and exclude or de-emphasize the other without affecting material in later chapters. Job design is basically qualitative while work measurement is basically quantitative. Work sampling can be deleted from work measurement if desired. However, if you intend to cover simulation, you may want to include work sampling because it introduces use of a random number table.
Good class discussions can occur on job design topics such as automation and fear of job loss, the use of industrial robots, specialization and productivity, repetitive jobs, efficiency versus behavioural approaches to job design, and working conditions, including ergonomics and health safety.
Some instructors like to make this chapter one of the main parts of the course while others de-emphasize or omit the material. A lot will depend on possible coverage in a management or behavioural science course the students may be required to take.

Answers to Discussion and Review Questions

• 1.         Job design is concerned with specifying the contents and methods of jobs. It is important because it has a significant impact on the efficiency and productivity of workers.
• 2.         From the standpoint of management, having workers with specialized skills can substantially lower the total cost of a product and also requires less training.  The disadvantages for the management include the following: a) Workers may be somewhat inflexible in terms of the functions they can perform. b) They are more likely to have less motivation, and higher absenteeism.  From the standpoint of workers, the advantages include clearer job responsibility and requirements that are easier to understand.  The disadvantage for the workers is that the specialized tasks can become monotonous and boring, causing a lack of fulfilment.
• 3.         Job enlargement involves assigning a larger portion of a task to a worker (i.e., horizontal loading). Job enrichment involves an increase in the level of responsibility for planning and coordinating tasks (i.e., vertical loading).
• 4.         Both job enlargement and job enrichment are intended to motivate workers and improve morale by making work more interesting and challenging to workers, and helping them to feel they have an important part in the work system.
• 5.         a.    Self-directed work teams or self-managed teams are designed to achieve a higher lever of teamwork and employee involvement. They are typically empowered to make changes in the work processes under their control since they are closer to the process and have more knowledge of the day to day operations than management.
• b.   Potential Benefits
• 1.   fewer managers
• 2.   better quality
• 3.   greater productivity
• 4.   higher levels of employee satisfaction
• 6.         Specialization is advantageous in the sense that it allows one to focus on a narrow aspect of work, and presumably develop an in-depth knowledge of that area. The disadvantage of that approach is that these specialists may lack an understanding and appreciation for other aspects of the work system due to lack of involvement. Rotation among different managerial jobs would tend to remedy this, although perhaps lessen the ability to develop in-depth knowledge. (Personally, I feel the benefits of rotation outweigh the disadvantages. In fact, the greater awareness due to rotation may give later specialization more meaning.)
• 7.         The need for methods analysis can come from changes in tools and equipment, changes in product or service design, the introduction of new products, changes or need for improvement in methods or procedures, and from changes in government regulations or contractual agreements. Methods analysis involves studying a job with the objective of improving the way it is done. To the extent that this leads to increases in output and/or decreases in input, productivity will be increased.  If the focus is too narrow, the result may be an improvement in efficiency rather than productivity (which is usually a more global concept).
• 8.         Flow process charts and man-machine charts are useful in reviewing and analyzing operations in terms of sequence and work flow.  They provide a visual model of the work.
• 9.         Motion-study principles are guidelines for designing motion-efficient work procedures (see list in Table 7-2 on page 284). They are classified according to principles which apply to the human body, principles which apply to the work place, and principles which apply to tools and equipment.
• 10.       A time standard reflects the length of time a given task should take a qualified worker who works at a sustainable rate, using given methods and equipment, using given material inputs, and using a given workplace arrangement.
• 11.       The information provided by the time study is useful for scheduling, budgeting, manpower planning, cost and time estimation, designing incentive systems, and so on.
• 12.       Yes, if the group of workers is representative and conditions are representative.
• 13.       Studying an average worker would involve the least amount of adjustment for performance. However, it may not be obvious who the “average” worker in a group is. Moreover, there may only be one worker on a job. Also, the "average" worker could also intentionally go slower than usual in order to set a longer standard time.
• 14.       Performance rating is subjective, and therefore, open to criticism. In addition, creative and intellectual jobs are difficult or impossible to study, and it is not usually cost-efficient to study irregular or infrequently occurring jobs.
• 15.       a.    The reason for this relates to minor changes in methods, equipment, product design, and so on which continually occur.
• The fact that standards are only approximate does not mean that they are invalid. It is important, though, to periodically update the standards, and to take care that they don’t get too far out of line before they are updated.
• 16.       Workers may feel that management is trying to increase their workloads, or is trying to maintain closer control over them. Moreover, some workers may be nervous or feel that they are being singled out for study for unknown (but ominous!) reasons.
• 17.       Work sampling is studying the proportion of time that a worker or a machine spends on various activities. It merely requires an analyst to make a brief observation of the work activity at random intervals and it notes the nature of the activity (i.e. typing, filing, and answering the phone for a secretary).  Work sampling is used to estimate the proportion of time an employee spends doing a certain task, therefore it is not suitable for short repetitive tasks.  On the other hand, time study involves estimating time standards for doing a task.  Work sampling involves less interruption to work and less worker stress and resentment than time study.   Unlike time study, work sampling does not require continuous observation or timing of the activity. Work sampling is less time consuming and less costly.
• 18.      

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• 19.       It is a pay system used by organizations to reward workers who undergo training that increases their skills. It is a portion of a worker’s pay that is based on the knowledge and skill the worker possesses. Knowledge-based pay has three dimensions: Horizontal skills reflect the variety of tasks the worker is capable of performing; Vertical skills reflect management tasks the worker is capable of; and Depth skills reflect quality and productivity results.
• Memo Writing Exercises
• 1.         Self directed work teams are responsible for defining and carrying out a segment of work.  It is a participative management approach that encourages workers to take on many roles formerly held only by managers.  Teams are empowered to make certain changes in their work processes.  They also have a vested personal interest in the implementation of the changes they may suggest.  Self directed teams have been successful in many situations because the workers performing the functions are indeed in the best position to make the most effective changes to improve the process.  They are also responsible for the quality of their products and services they provide.
• 2.         Just-in-time systems put more emphasis on quality, productivity, flexibility and breakdown buffers between departments. Therefore, the more knowledgeable the workers are, the more value they can add to the operations of the firm.  This in turn led some companies to use knowledge-based pay system to reward workers who undergo training to improve their knowledge base pertinent to their work.  A portion of worker’s pay is based on the level of knowledge the worker possesses.  This system of payment has three dimensions: a) horizontal skills (worker task skills), b) vertical skills (management task skills), c) depth skills (skills that improve quality and productivity).

Solutions:

Solutions (continued)

Solutions (continued)

Case: Making Hotplates

The case illustrates some benefits of job enlargement.

Answers to questions:

• 1.         Originally workers were bored and morale was low, apparently because of the specialization of work. Allowing workers to complete entire units rather than just a portion of the work seems to have improved the situation tremendously.
• 2.         Because workers were better able to identify with the final product, they became more interested in their work, and hence, absenteeism decreased and morale increased.
• 3.         The major change involved giving each worker a greater share of the overall task. This was under the control of the manager. The workers have control over productivity and absenteeism, to a certain extent.
• 4.         If they were to return to the old assembly line, it is conceivable that morale and productivity would be even lower than before. Once the workers had a taste of the new method, they would dislike the former setup even more.

Two additional comments: One relates to the last question; Why would management even consider going back to the old method? The second is that this approach is not always feasible. For example, in an automobile assembly plant, it would be inefficient and hard for one or a small group of workers to completely assemble a car. In addition, material handling will become a problem.